UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Dr.    ERNEST   C.    MOORE 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/englishcompositiOOIamo 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


ENGLISH 
COMPOSITION 


BY 


HAMMOND    LAMONT 

MANAGING   EDITOR   OF   THE   NEW   YORK    EVENING  POST 

FORMERLY   PROFESSOR   OF   RHETORIC   IN 

BROWN   UNIVERSITY 


NEW    YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER^S    SONS 

1906 


Copyright,  1906,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

PRINTING  AND  BOOKBINDING  COMPANV 

HEW  YORK 


PE 
Lrle 


TO    MY    MOTHER 
CAROLINE    JAYNE    LAMONT 


2151.83 


PREFACE 

For  permission  to  use  copyrighted  material  in  tliis  book 
grateful  acknowledgments  are  due  McClure,  Phillips,  & 
Company  for  part  of  a  story,  The  Play's  the  Thing,  from 
George  Madden  Martin's  Emmy  Lou;  Longmans,  Green, 
&  Company  for  a  sketch  of  Charles  Lever  from  Andrew 
Lang's  Essays  in  Little;  the  Century  Company  for  short 
passages  from  each  of  Rudyard  Kipling's  Jungle  Books; 
President  Charles  William  Eliot  and  Houghton,  Mifflin, 
&  Company  for  a  description  (with  diagram)  of  Gore 
Place,  Waltham,  from  Charles  Eliot,  Landscape  Architect; 
Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Company  also  for  a  description  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Chartres  from  Henry  James's  Portraits 
of  Places;  Professor  George  Francis  Atkinson  and  Henry 
Holt  &  Company  for  a  piece  of  exposition  (with  cut) 
from  Studies  of  American  Fungi;  and  the  Macmillan 
Company  for  several  pages  (with  cut)  from  Alfred  Russel 
Wallace's  Darwinism.  For  other  illustrative  matter  I 
am  indebted  to  many  former  pupils,  particularly  James 
Harper  Chase  and  Mrs.  George  Albert  Goulding.  The 
extracts  are  generally  quoted  exactly;  but  sometimes 
matter  of  no  value  as  illustration  has  been  cut  out,  and 


Vlll  PREFACE 

the  ^aps  have  been  closed  by  recasting  sentences  and 
su{){)Iying  connectives.  The  text,  whenever  altered,  is 
marked  "arranged  from,"  etc.  In  framing  definitions 
and  discussing  questions  of  usage,  I  have  consulted  the 
standard  works  of  reference,  chiefly  Murray's  New  Eng- 
lish Dictionary  and  the  Ccnturij  Dicfiouary. 

The  extent  of  my  indebtedness  to  writers  on  English 
composition  is  hard  to  estimate.  The  books  with  which 
I  am  most  familiar  and  from  which  I  have  received  most 
help  are  Charles  Sears  Baldwin's  Specimens  of  Description, 
Wilhara  Tenney  Brewster's  Specimens  of  Narration, 
Hueber  Gray  Buehler's  Practical  Exercises  in  English, 
George  Rice  Carpenter's  Exercises  in  Rhetoric,  John  Y. 
Genung's  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  Robert  Herrick 
and  Lindsay  Todd  Damon's  Composition  and  Rhetoric, 
Alphonso  G.  Newcomer's  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  Fred.  N. 
Scott  and  Joseph  V.  Denney's  Paragraph  Writing,  John 
Hays  Gardiner's  Eorms  of  Prose  Literature,  Adams  Sher- 
man Hill's  Foundations  of  Rhetoric,  Principles  of  Rhetoric, 
and  Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition;  George 
Pierce  Baker's  Principles  of  Argumentation,  and  Barrett 
Wendell's  English  Composition.  To  the  last  two  treatises 
my  debt  is  direct  and  obvious.  The  chapter  on  argu- 
mentation, like  everything  recently  written  on  that  topic, 
follows  Baker  closely;  and  this  book  as  a  whole  is  based 
on  Wendell.  From  Professors  Gardiner,  Hill,  Baker,  and 
Wendell  I  also  got  more  than  instruction  through  books, 
fur  1  had  the  privilege  of  association  with  theiu  at  Harvard; 


PREFACE  IX 

and    before    that    Professpr    Wendell    was    ray    inspiring 
teacher. 

The  Rev.  Thomas  Lamont  and  George  Mason  La 
Monte  have  kindly  read  proofs  and  offered  valuable  sug- 
gestions. 

Hammond  Lamont. 

New  York,  January  6,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface       .        .        . vii 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  and  Pupils      ...       .        .  xix 

Chapter  I.     Four  Kinds  of  Writing 1 

1.  Narration,  Description,  Exposition,  and  Argumenta- 

tion      1 

2.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Description  ...  1 

3.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Exposition    ...  4 

4.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Argumentation    .        .  6 

5.  Description  Distinguished  from  Exposition          .        .  7 

6.  Description  Distinguished  from  Argumentation  9 

7.  Exposition  Distinguished  from  Argumentation   .        .10 

8.  Essentials  of  Composition 12 

Exercises 12 

Chapter  II.     Narration 14 

9.  Kinds  of  Narration 14 

10.  Sources  of  Material  .        .        .      "  .        .        .        .14 

11.  Material  from  Observation .  14 

12.  Material  from  the  Imagination 18 

13.  Material  from  Books 24 

14.  Unity 30 

15.  Order 38 

Beginning  and  Ending 39 

"News  Stories" 40 

Plans 44 

xi 


Xll  CONTENTS 

Chapter  II. — Continued  page 

16.  Proportion 45 

17.  Clearness 47 

18.  Interest 52 

Questions  and  Exercises 54 

Chapter  III.     Description 67 

19.  Kinds  of  Description 67 

20.  Sources  of  Material 67 

Sight 76 

Hearing 77 

Smell 78 

Taste 79 

Touch 79 

Objects  which  Affect  the  Emotions   ...  81 

21.  Unity 83 

22.  Order 91 

A  General  Outline 91 

The  Traveller's  Point  of  View 93 

Beginning  and  Ending 97 

Plans 98 

23.  Proportion 98 

24.  Clearness 99 

Maintaining  the  Point  of  View 99 

Comparisons 100 

25.  Interest 100 

26.  Narration  and  Description  Combined                  .        .  101 

Questions  and  Exercises 102 

Chapter  IV.     Exposition 107 

27.  Kinds  of  Exposition 107 

28.  Sources  of  Material 107 


CONTENTS  Xlll 

Chapter  IV. — Continued  page 

29.  Material  from  Observation ,      .  107 

30.  Material  from  Books 113 

31.  Unity 120 

The  "Topic-sentence" 120 

32.  Order 123 

Order  as  in  Narrative 123 

Order  as  in  Description 124 

Proceeding  from  the  Simple  to  the  Complex  .        .  126 

Order  of  Climax 128 

Beginning  and  Ending 129 

Plans 131 

33.  Proportion 132 

34.  Clearness .132 

Diagrams 132 

Specific  Examples 133 

35.  Interest 134 

Questions  and  Exercises 138 

Chapter  V.     Argumentation 149 

36.  Kinds  of  Argumentation 149 

37.  Sources  of  Material 149 

38.  Unity 162 

Mastery  of  the  Whole  Subject 163 

Analysis  of  the  Material 163 

Exposition  of  the  Question 163 

Origin  of  the  Question 166 

Definition  of  Terms 166 

Statement  of  the  Issue 169 

Evidence '  .        .        .173 

Testimonial  Evidence 174 

Honesty  of  the  Witness 174 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  V. — Continued 

General  Character 
Special  Motive 
Competence  of  the  Witness 
General  Intelligence 
Expert  Knowledge 

Freedom  from  Prejudice 
Opportunities  for  Study 
Value  of  Expert  Testimony 
Recognized  x\uthorities   . 
Assertion     .... 
Summary  of  Testimonial  Evidence 
Circumstantial  Evidence 
Incorrect  Inferences 
Fallacy  of  Definitions  . 
Fallacy  of  Invented  Example 
Analogies  that  Do  not  Apply 
"Post  Hoc  Ergo  Propter  Hoc" 
Superstitions 
Quack  Medicines 
Doubtful  Inferences 

From  Conflicting  Evidence 

From  Ambiguous  Evidence 

Examples  that  May  not  Appl 

Generalization  from   Incomplete  Data 

General  Principles  that  May  not  Apply 

Correct  Inferences 

From  Unchanging  Natural  Law 

Many  Pieces  of  Evidence  Pointing  to  the 

Same  Conclusion 

Summary  of  Circumstantial  Evidence  . 

Limits  of  the  Argument 

The  proposition  as  a  "Topic-sentence" 
Fallacy   of   Reliance    on  Mere  Negative  Argu- 
ments       


PAGE 

174 
174 
17G 
176 
177 
177 
180 
181 
182 
183 
184 
185 
185 
186 
187 
188 
189 
189 
190 
191 
191 
192 
195 
196 
200 
203 
203 

204 
205 
206 
206 

206 


CONTENTS  XV 

Chapter  V. — Continued        ■  page 

39.  Order 208 

Brief-drawing 209 

Introduction 215 

Brief  Proper 218 

Refutation 220 

40.  Proportion  . 221 

41.  Clearness 222 

42.  Interest 222 

43.  Persuasiveness 222 

Appeal  to  Emotion 224 

44.  Debate 226 

Division  of  Material 227 

Introductions  and  Conclusions 228 

Rebuttal 229 

Questions  and  Exercises 230 

Chapter  VI.    The  Paragraph 240 

45.  Definition 240 

46.  Unity 240 

Paragraphing  Dialogue        .        ,        .        .        .        .   241 
Test  of  Unity 244 

47.  Order 244 

Order  as  in  Narrative  ......  245 

Order  as  in  Description 245 

Proceeding  from  the  Simple  to  the  Complex  .        .  248 

Order  of  Climax 249 

Expository  and  Argumentative  Paragraphs     .        .  250 

Beginning  and  Ending 252 

48.  Proportion 256 

49.  Clearness 256 

Connectives  256 

Parallel  Constructions 256 

Keeping  One  Subject  Prominent      ....   258 


XVI  CONTENTS 

Chapter  VI. — Continued  ■  page 

50.  Interest 260 

Questions  and  Exercises 260 

Chapter  VII.     The  Sentence 268 

51.  Definition  268 

52.  Good  Use 269 

Present 270 

National 271 

Reputable 272 

Good  Use  as  It  Determines  Order  of  Words  .  272 

Punctuation 273 

Comma 274 

Semicolon 280 

Colon 281 

Period 281 

Interrogation  Point 281 

Exclamation  Point 282 

Dash 282 

Parentheses 282 

Brackets 283 

Quotation  Marks 283 

Apostrophe 284 

Hyphen 284 

53.  Unity 284 

54.  Order 288 

Idioms 289 

Keeping  Together  Words  (irammatically  Related  289 
Order  as  Determined  by  Emphasis  .  .  .291 
Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 294 

55.  Proportion •   .        .295 

5Q.  Clearness 297 

Parallel  Constructions 297 


COKTENTS  XVll 

Chapter  VII. — Continued  page 

Avoiding  Needless  Shifts  of  Subject  or  of  Voice  of 


Verb 

Proper  Subordination  of  Clauses 
Care  in  Use  of  Pronouns     . 
Misrelated  Participles  . 
Questions  and  Exercises 


299 
300 
301 
303 
305 


Chapter  VIII.     Words 314 

57.  Good  Use 314 

Present 314 

Obsolete  Words 314 

New  Words 314 

National 315 

Local  Words 315 

American  and  British  Usage       .        .        .        .316 
'  Words  Peculiar  to  a  Trade  or  Profession        .        .317 

Reputable 317 

Barbarisms 317 

Foreign  Words 317 

Vulgar  Words .  318 

Improprieties 318 

Slang 318 

Misuse  of  Common  Adjectives  .318 

Words  that   Sound   Alike   or    Are   Similar   in 

Meaning 319 

Nouns 319 

Verbs 321 

Shall  and  Will 324 

Should  and  Would 328 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 329 

Prepositions 331 

Conjunctions 331 

Pretentious  Misuse 332 


XVI 11  CONTENTS 

Chapter  ^^II. — Continued  p^qe 
Derivatives    from    Anglo-Saxon    and    from 

Latin 332 

Idioms 335 

Capitalization 337 

58.  Kinds  of  Words 340 

General  and  Specific 340 

Literal  and  Figurative 344 

Dangers  of  Figurative  Language       .        .        .  346 

59.  Enlarging  the  Vocabulary 346 

Questions  and  Exercises 348 

Chapter  IX.     Letter  Forms 351 

60.  Familiar  Letters 351 

61.  Business  Letters 354 

62.  Invitations  and  Replies 356 

Exercises 358 

Index 359 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS 

The  way  to  learn  to  write  is  to  choose  suitable  subjects,  study 
good  models,  and  practise  steadily. 

The  ultimate  object  of  all  schooling,  of  the  weary  grind  in  the 
multiplication  table  and  the  principles  of  grammar,  is  not  merely 
to  acquire  useful  facts,  but  to  train  the  mind  to  observe  keenly 
and  reason  soundly.  Though  arithmetic  and  reading  are  im- 
mediately helpful  in  daily  affairs,  even  these  bread-and-butter 
studies  are  equally  profitable  as  a  means  to  an  end — mental 
discipline.  English  composition  is  no  exception.  True,  ability 
to  express  oneself  clearly  and  interestingly  is  a  great  assistance  in 
the  professions,  in  business,  and  in  social  intercourse;  but  at  the 
same  time  a  course  in  English  composition  serves  the  more  remote 
and  important  end,  for  drill  in  writing  is  a  drill  in  observing  keenly 
and  reasoning  soundly. 

The  first  step,  as  the  most  progressive  teachers  are  now  agreed, 
is  the  choice  of  subjects  in  which  the  pupil  is  naturally  interested 
— those  from  personal  experience.  For  narration 
Subjectsfrom  there  are  numberless  incidents  at  home,  in  class. 
Experience  ^^'^  °°  *^®   playground;   for  description,  houses, 

shops,  and  people,  and  scenes  in  the  fields  and 
on  the  streets;  for  exposition,  methods  of  playing  games,  of 
riding  various  hobbies,  like  stamp-collecting,  and  of  performing 
experiments  in  the  laboratory;  for  argumentation,  the  questions 
discussed  in  school  and  in  the  newspapers.  "To  any  one  with 
senses,"  says  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  "there  is  always  some- 
thing worth  describing,  and  town  and  country  are  but  one  con- 
tinuous subject."  From  this  statement  most  high-school  pupils 
would  dissent;  yet  it  is  scarcely  exaggerated.  Some  people,  to 
be  sure,  are  more  observant  than  others,  and  more  easily  find 
matter  for  themes;  but  the  good  habit  of  seeing  and  hearing  may 
be  cultivated  by  this  very  method  of  writing  on  topics  that  force 
one  constantly  to  keep  eyes  and  ears  open. 

Writing  on  such  subjects  also  clarifies  the  style.  A  clear 
style  proceeds  from  a  clear  mind.     The  things  concerning  which 


XX  SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS   AXI)    PUPILS 

our  knowledge  is  most  definite  are  those  which  we  have  ex- 
amined for  ourselves,  touched  with  our  own  fingers.  If  through 
personal  experience  a  pupil  has  really  mastered  a  topic,  he  has  at 
least  a  chance  for  practice  in  logical  construction  of  sentences 
and  paragraphs.  On  the  contrary,  if  his  ideas  are  hazy,  his 
struggles  for  expression  are  hopeless;  he  is  certain  to  make  parts 
of  his  theme,  and  perhaps  all  of  it,  an  unintelligible  jumble. 
Moreover,  his  mental  images  of  what  he  himself  has  observed  are 
so  sharp  that  in  translating  them  into  words  he  may  approach 
precision  of  terms;  whereas,  when  he  gets  his  facts  at  second  or 
third  hand,  his  perception  of  them  is  so  much  less  vivid  that  his 
language  is  likely  to  be  vague  and  slipshod.  As  an  exercise, 
then,  in  composition,  in  exact  thinking  and  lucid  utterance,  his 
description  of  his  own  house  and  yard  is  far  better  than  his  feeble 
and  shadowy  reproduction  of  a  scene,  like  the  home  of  Evange- 
line, which  he  has  merely  read  about  and  but  half  reahzes. 

This  is  not  to  say  that  a  pupil  receives  no  benefit  from  sum- 
marizing a  chapter  of  history  or  a  passage  from  a  novel.     The 

reading  of  the  original  enlarges  his  vocabulary, 
Sunimarii's  setting  down  the  events  fixes  them  in  memory,  and 

from  Books.       the  practice  in  composition  is  not  without  value. 

Nevertheless,  in  developing  power  of  observation 
and  expression,  his  account  of  a  baseball  game  in  which  he  has 
taken  part  is  worth  half  a  dozen  dull  recapitulations  of  the  con- 
tests in  Scott's  Talisman.  Beginners,  therefore,  should  devote 
themselves  largely  to  subjects  from  experience. 

In  attempts  at  literary  criticism  or  anything  resembling  it  the 
average   pupil   produces   rubbish.     One   reason   is   that   however 

much  young  people  enjoy  reading,  they  care  little 
Literary  about    analyzing  their   impressions.     They   want 

Criticism.  to  be  carried  away  by  the  rush  of  the  story ;  they 

are  content  to  let  their  learned  instructors  pick 
it  to  pieces.  Indeed,  few  persons  have  well  formulated  opinions 
about  books.  The  ablest  newspaper  staff  in  America  does  not 
contain  ten  men  who  are  competent  to  grapple  with  the  problems 
in  diction,  versification,  characterization,  management  of  plot, 
setting,  local  color,  and  moral  intention  in  Shakspere's  Merchant 
of  ]'enire,  Tennyson's  Lancrlol  and  FAainc,  and  Coleridge's  ,4 rjnVnf 
Afarincr — problems  on  which  unskilled  high-school  students  are 
expected  to  manufacture  edifying  essays.  The  pupil,  after  chew- 
ing his  pencil  for  hours,  may  restate  what  his  teacher  has 
already  told  him;  but  until  late  in  his  course  he  looks  upon  dis- 


SUGGESTIONS   TO    TEACHERS    AND    PUPILS  XXI 

tinctions  of  style  as  too  artificial  and  intangible  for  his  grasp. 
He  prefers  something  near  to  the  business  of  life,  something 
that  he  can  take  hold  of. 

Worse  even  than  literary  criticism  are  the  themes  which  con- 
sist of  general  remarks  on  Christmas,  Tramps,  and  Education,  the 
orations    on    Cheerfulness  as  a  Duty,  The  Marble 
Themes  that      j^umts  the  Sculptor,  and  Beyond  the  Alps  Lies  Italy, 
Consist  of  ,    ,  '^      '         r     ,,        •  ^    .,        ^         , 

General  ^^°^  *^  arguments  on  Is  Marriage  a  Failure  r  and 

Remarks.  Does  Prosperity  Depend  upon  Morality  ?    Such  sub- 

jects would  drive  a  James  Russell  Lowell  to 
despair.  What  then  can  be  expected  of  a  boy  of  sixteen?  He 
flounders  about  among  abstract  words  to  which  he  attaches  no 
precise  meaning;  he  acquires  a  stilted,  empty  style  and  a  slovenly 
habit  of  thought.  A  city  editor  who  should  try  to  train  his 
reporters  by  such  exercises  in  posturing  and  affectation  would 
be  clapped  into  a  lunatic  asylum.  A  reporter  learns  to  write 
because  he  has  real  matter  to  handle — a  trial  in  court,  a  railway 
accident,  a  new  steamship  to  describe.  He  writes,  not  for  the 
sake  of  airing  his  views  about  Uterature  or  anything  else  (and 
thereby  displaying  the  poverty  of  his  mind)  but  of  conveying  to 
others  a  conception  of  what  he  has  seen  and  heard. 

In  addition  to  knowing  what  he  is  to  say,  a  pupil  must  know 
how  to  say  it.     To  this  end  he  should,  like  the  painter,  the  sculp- 
tor, or  the  architect,  study  good  models;  that  is, 
Study  of  profit  by  other  people's    experiments    in    expres- 

Good  Models.  sion.  He  is  not,  however,  to  imitate  slavishly 
the  manner  of  a  single  author.  In  describing 
his  house  he  may  take  one  hint  as  to  method  from  Ruskin, 
another  from  Dickens,  and  a  third  from  Scott;  and  he  may  con- 
tribute something  of  his  own.  He  must,  if  his  style  is  to  have 
variety  and  flexibility,  be  familiar  with  many  modes  of  solving 
the  common  problems  of  composition.  This  book  contains  a 
collection  of  working  models.  Most  of  them,  including  some 
which  are  dear  to  two  or  three  generations  of  teachers,  are  from 
standard  Uterature;  several  are  from  school  themes.  No  such 
small  collection,  however,  can  pretend  to  completeness ;  and  every 
teacher  and  pupil  should  supplement  it  from  his  own  reading. 
Moreover,  the  pupil  must  understand  the  the- 
Study  of  ories    on    which   the    models    are    constructed — 

Theory.  theories  which  are  set  forth  in  the  accompanying 

explanations.  There  are  scarcely  any  hard  and 
fast  rules;  for  a  successful  writer — whether  of  business  letters, 


XXll  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  AND   PUPILS 

medical  or  engineering  reports,  legal  briefs,  or  articles  for  news- 
papers and  magazines — is  not  bound  down  by  minute  regula- 
tions; he  observes  a  few  broad  principles.  He  tries  to  stick  to 
his  point,  arrange  his  ideas  logically,  allot  to  each  its  proportion- 
ate space,  and  be  clear  and  interesting.  In  every  step  of  the 
process  of  combining  words  into  sentences,  sentences  into  para- 
graphs, and  paragraphs  into  whole  compositions,  there  is  more 
than  one  means  of  conforming  fairly  well  to  these  principles. 
The  question,  then,  is  not  between  absolute  right  and  wrong, 
but  between  better  and  worse.     As  Kipling  puts  it: 

There  are  nine  and  sixty  ways  of  constructing  tribal  lays. 
And  every  single  one  of  them  is  right. 

Of  the  nine  and  sixty  ways  of  describing  a  house  or  reporting 
a  game  of  basket-ball,  a  pupil  must  adopt  that  which,  all  things 
considered,  comes  nearest  to  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  unity, 
order,  proportion,  clearness,  and  interest. 

These    principles   of    composition   are   positive,   not   negative: 
most  of  their  commands  are  "Thou  shalt,"  rather  than  "Thou 

shalt  not."  A  surprising  number  of  students 
The  Great  enter  high  school,  and  even  leave  it,  possessed  of 

ConstrucUon       ^^^  Curious  notion  that  mastery  of  the  mother 

tongue  consists  in  not  violating  certain  rules  of 
grammar  and  not  using  certain  forbidden  words.  A  theme  may 
be  confused  and  dull,  but  if  the  writer  has  not  split  his  infinitives 
and  has  avoided  "pants"  and  "gents,"  he  is  often  proud  of  his 
performance.  He  forgets  that  if  he  spends  his  energy  fussing 
over  the  small  things  he  must  not  do,  he  will  never  get  ahead  with 
the  large  things  he  must  do ;  and  that  a  theme  which  displays  the 
cardinal  virtues  of  clearness  and  interest  is  well  written  in  spite 
of  a  few  lapses  of  diction.  In  order  to  subordinate  minor  details 
of  phrasing  to  the  great  principles  of  construction,  to  lay  stress 
on  the  architectural  side  of  composition,  this  book  takes  up 
first,  selection  and  disposition  of  material  for  narration,  descrip- 
tion, exposition,  and  argumentation;  then  structure  of  the  para- 
graph and  the  sentence ;  and  finally  choice  of  words.  This  is  the 
arrangement  which  many  teachers  have  found  most  convenient. 
This  arrangement  also  follows  the  pupil's  line  of  thought:  his 
first  step  is  to  gather  his  material;  his  second,  to  plan  it,  that  is, 
divide  his  facts  into  groups  which  form  paragraphs  and  sentences; 
his  last,  to  pick  words  and  phrases. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO    TEACHERS    AND    PUPILS  XXlll 

In  accordance  with  the  scheme  just  outlined,  this  book  offers 
exercises  for  all  grades  in  secondary  schools.  The  adaptation  of 
the  work,  both  to  the  class  and  the  individual, 
Plan  of  this  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher. 
Book.  Some  pupils  have  unusual  native  ability,  and  profit 

so  much  by  home  reading  and  instruction  that  the 
teacher,  in  correcting  their  themes,  may  suggest  niceties  of  style 
which  would  be  beyond  the  average  of  the  class.  These  pupils 
may  also  be  encouraged  to  greater  development  by  taking  up 
parts  of  each  chapter  which  are  not  prescribed  for  the  whole 
class.  The  distinctions  between  the  four  kinds  of  writing, 
though  useful  for  purposes  of  instruction,  are  not  important  in 
themselves  and  deserve  no  special  emphasis.  No  class,  there- 
fore, should  spend  much  time  on  the  first  chapter.  In  the 
chapter  on  narration  the  younger  pupils  will  study  the  simpler 
models,  the  matter  in  Sections  9-13,  and  the  earlier  and  easier 
parts  of  the  sections  on  unity  and  order;  and  they  will  write 
appropriate  exercises.  From  this  point  most  classes  will  skip  to 
the  section  on  unity  in  the  chapter  on  paragraphs;  then  they  will 
go  through  substantially  all  of  the  chapters  on  sentences  and 
words.  When  the  younger  pupils  reach  description  and  expo- 
sition, they  may  treat  the  chapters  on  these  subjects  in  exactly 
the  same  fashion.  More  advanced  classes  can  study  the  more 
difficult  models  and  the  harder  parts  of  the  chapters  on  narra- 
tion, description,  exposition,  and  paragraphs.  Argumentation 
belongs  rather  late  in  the  course.  For  the  benefit  of  teachers 
who  demand  from  students  an  oral  summary  of  leading  points,  a 
few  questions  are  printed  among  the  exercises  at  the  end  of  each 
chapter.  The  real  test,  however,  of  diligence  with  a  book  of  this 
kind  is  not  ability  to  recite  but  ability  to  write. 

If  the  subjects  be  suitable,  the  main  objection  to  frequent 
writing  disappears.  A  boy's  mind  may  not  be  strengthened  by 
his  muddling  over  topics  beyond  his  reach;  but 
Steady  Prac-  indubitably  it  is  disciplined  by  his  writing  briefly 
tice*  and    often    on    his    daily   experiences,   for   con- 

stant practice  under  guidance  is  the  only  means 
of  acquiring  facility.  Composition  soon  ceases  to  be  an  ordeal  if 
two  or  three  times  a  week  the  younger  pupils  write  a  paragraph 
or  two,  and  if  once  a  fortnight  the  older  pupils  write,  in  addition 
to  that,  a  more  elaborate  theme  containing  from  three  to  six 
hundred  words. 


XXIV  SUGGESTION'S    TO    TEACHERS    AXD    PUPILS 

The  following  signs  and  abbreviations  are  used  in  correcting 
themes : 

sp. — Bad  spelling. 

p. — Fault  in  punctuation. 

cap. — Fault  in  use  of  capital  letter. 

b. — Barbarism. 

i. — Impropriety. 

w. — Wordy. 

V. — Vague. 

k. — Awkward. 

X.— Some  fault  too  obvious  to  require  particularizing. 

If. — Proper  place  for  a  paragraph. 

No  ^. — Improper  place  for  a  paragraph. 

[  ]. — Passages  within  brackets  to  be  omitted. 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER   I 

FOUR  KINDS   OF  WRITING 

1.  Narration,  Description,  Exposition,  and  Argumenta- 
tion.— There  arc  four  kinds  of  writing:  narration,  de- 
scription, exposition,  and  argumentation.  Narration  tells 
of  events ;  description  presents  a  mental  image  of  some- 
thing ;  exposition  explains ;  argumentation  convinces.  An 
account  of  the  last  football  match  between  Harvard  and 
Yale  is  a  narrative;  a  word-picture  of  the  ball-field  is 
a  description ;  an  explanation  of  the  way  to  play  is  an 
exposition ;  a  course  of  reasoning  to  prove  that  the  game 
is  dangerous  is  an  argument. 

2.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Description. — Narra- 
tion tells  of  events;  description  presents  an  image,  or 
picture,  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing,  as  in  the  following 
examples : 

NARRATION  ^       DESCRIPTION 

This    afternoon    I    started  This    afternoon    I    saw    a 

to    race    with    my     younger  monkey  belonging  to  an  Ital- 

brother  from  one  end  of  our  ian  organ-grinder.     The  ani- 

block   to   the   other.      When  mal  was  about  as  large  as  a 

we  had   gone  three-quarters  cat^  but  with  a   more  slender 

of  the  way  I  was  about  two  body.    He  was  dressed  in  red 

yards    ahead.     At   that  mo-  soldier  clothes  and  red  cap, 

ment   I    caught   sight   of   an  trimmed     with      gilt     braid, 

organ-grinder    with    a    mon-  Whenever    he    got    a    penny 


2  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

key.     While   I   had   my  eye  he   would   take   off   his   cap, 

on    them    I    stumbled,    fell,  bow,    and    wink    both    eyes, 

scratched     my     hands,     and  Now     and    then     he     would 

bruised  my  knees.     Juminng  bang  a  tiny  tambourine  that 

lip,  I   ran  again  as  hard  as  he    carried.      His    face   waa 

I  could,  but  my  brother  had  much    like   that    of   a    man, 

such  a  lead  that  he  won  by  only  wizened  and  rather  wise 

five  or  six  feet.  and  pathetic  in  expression. 

The  distinction,  clear  enough  in  this  case,  is  not  always 
so  easy  to  see.  A  theme  on  such  a  subject  as  a  trip  from 
New  York  to  Boston  may  be  either  a  narrative  or  a  de- 
scription. If  the  journey  be  enlivened  by  several  delays 
and  accidents,  the  interest  may  lie  in  the  events  and  the 
theme  be  a  narrative.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  trip  be  un- 
eventful and  the  interest  lie  in  the  description  of  persons 
and  places,  the  theme,  notwithstanding  a  slight  thread  of 
narration,  is  description. 

Moreover,  narration  generally  needs  some  description 
to  make  it  clear  and  interesting.  In  Robinson  Crusoe 
Defoe's  description  of  the  bower  is  necessary  in  order 
to  show  why  Crusoe  retreated  there  from  the  canni- 
bals. Description  may  likewise  contain  passages  of  nar- 
ration. When  the  description  is  subordinate  the  piece  as 
a  whole  is  narration;  and  when  the  narration  is  subordi- 
nate the  piece  as  a  whole  is  description.  The  difference 
is  illustrated  by  the  two  following  examples:  the  first, 
a  narrative  with  some  lines  of  description  in  it  (marked 
in  italics)  ;  the  second,  a  description  with  a  bit  of  narra- 
tion in  it  (similarly  marked)  : 

NARRATION  DESCRIPTION 

When  I  had  climbed  a  tall  That    Charles    [the    Sec- 

tree    I    first   of    all    directed      ond]  had  great  natural  parts 
my  anxious  glances  towards      no  one  doubted.     In  his  ear- 


FOUR   KIKDS   OF   WRITING 


the  sea;  but  finding  nothing 
hopeful  there,  I  turned  land- 
ward, and  my  curiosity  was 
excited  by  a  huge,  dazsling 
white  object,  so  far  off  that 
I  could  not  make  out  what  it 
might  be. 

Descending  from  the  tree 
I  hastily  collected  what  re- 
mained of  my  provisions 
and  set  off  as  fast  as  I  could 
go  towards  it.  As  I  drew 
near  it  seemed  to  me  to  be 
a  white  ball  of  immense 
size  and  height,  and  when  I 
could  touch  it,  I  found  it 
marvellously  smooth  and 
soft.  As  it  was  impossible 
to  climb  it — for  it  present- 
ed no  foothold — /  walked 
round  about  it  seeking  some 
opening,  but  there  was  none. 
I  counted,  however,  that  it 
was  at  least  fifty  paces 
round.  By  this  time  the  sun 
was  near  setting,  but  quite 
suddenly  it  fell  dark,  some- 
thing like  a  huge  black  cloud 
came  swiftly  over  me,  and  I 
saw  with  amazement  that  it 
was  a  bird  of  extraordinary 
size  which  was  hovering 
near.  Then  I  remembered 
that  I  had  often  heard  the 
sailors  speak  of  a  wonderful 
bird  called  a  roc,  and  it  oc- 
curred to  me  that  the  white 
object  which  had  so  puzzled 
me  must  be  its  egg. — Second 
Voyage  of  Sindbad  the  Sail- 
or in  The  Arabian  Nights. 


lier  days  of  defeat  and  dan- 
ger he  showed  a  cool  courage 
and  presence  of  mind  which 
never  failed  him  in  the  many 
perilous  moments  of  his 
reign.  His  temper  was 
pleasant  and  social,  his 
manners  perfect,  and  there 
was  a  careless  freedom  and 
courtesy  in  his  address 
which  won  over  everybody 
who  came  into  his  presence. 
.  .  .  He  was  fond  of  telling 
stories,  and  he  told  them 
with  a  good  deal  of  grace 
and  humor.  He  held  his 
own  fairly  with  the  wits  of 
his  court,  and  bandied  repar- 
tees on  equal  terms  with  Sed- 
ley  or  Buckingham.  Even 
Rochester  in  his  merciless 
epigram  was  forced  to  own 
that  "Charles  never  said  a 
foolish  thing."  He  had  in- 
herited, in  fact,  his  grand- 
father's gift  of  pithy  say- 
ings, and  his  habitual  irony 
often  gave  an  amusing  turn 
to  them.  When  his  brother, 
the  most  unpopular  man  in 
England,  solemnly  warned 
him  of  plots  against  his 
life,  Charles  laughingly 
bade  him  set  all  fear  aside. 
"They  will  never  kill  me, 
James,"  he  said,  "to  make 
you  king." — John  Richard 
Green  in  History  of  the 
English  People. 


4  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

A  further  distinction  is  that  in  rhetoric  the  word 
description  is  employed  in  a  narrow,  special  sense.  Or- 
dinarily people  speak  of  a  description  of  a  football 
game,  of  a  railway  accident,  of  a  race,  or  of  the  adven- 
tures of  Sindbad ;  but  in  the  special  sense  such  an  account 
is  a  narrative  because  it  deals  chiefly  with  events.  In  brief, 
narration  tells  of  events,  description  pictures  in  words  a 
person,  place,  or  thing;  narration,  though  it  may  con- 
tain much  description,  and  may  commonly  be  called  de- 
scription, is,  strictly  speaking,  writing  in  wliich  the  em- 
phasis is  on  the  events. 

3.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Exposition. — Exposi- 
tion, as  well  as  narration,  may  deal  with  events,  with  this 
difference :  narration  treats  particular  events ;  exposition, 
typical  events.  The  story  of  the  game  between  Harvard 
and  Yale — to  recur  to  a  former  illustration — recounts  a 
particular  set  of  incidents ;  an  exposition  of  the  way  to 
play  football,  the  typical  events  of  the  game.  For 
example : 

NARRATION  EXPOSITION 

Five  minutes  before  the  A  common  way  to  put  the 
end  of  the  last  half,  Yale  ball  into  play  is  for  the  cen- 
had  the  ball.  Williams,  her  tre  rush  to  snap  it  back  be- 
centre,  snapped  it  to  Smith,  tweeii  his  legs  to  the  quar- 
the  quarter-back.  He  start-  ter-back.  The  latter  some- 
ed  to  run  with  it  through  an  times  tries  to  run  with  it 
opening  forced  in  the  Har-  through  the  opposing  line, 
vard  line  by  the  right  guard  In  this  work  he  is  helped  by 
and  tackle,  but  he  failed  to  guard  and  tackle,  who  en- 
make  headway,  dropped  the  deavor  to  crowd  their  oppo- 
ball,  and  lost  it  to  Harvard.  nents  out  of  the  way. 

In  the  following  example  the  first  column  is  narration, 
the  incidents  of  a  particular  afternoon ;  the  second  is  ex- 


FOUR   KINDS   OF   WRITING 


position,  the  explanation  of  the  programme   for  every 
afternoon : 


EXPOSITION 

Our  afternoons  are  spent 
as  follows:  At  half  past 
twelve  we  have  a  light 
luncheon.  Then  come  two 
periods,  one  for  recitation, 
the  other  for  study.  When 
work  is  done,  we  are  al- 
lowed the  rest  of  the  after- 
noon for  exercise.  Some- 
times we  go  bicycling,  some- 
times walking,  sometimes  we 
play  golf,  tennis,  football, 
or  baseball,  and  sometimes 
we  train  for  an  athletic  meet. 
At  six  o'clock  we  must  be 
washed  and  dressed  for  din- 


NARRATION 

At  half  past  twelve  we 
had  luncheon,  which  consist- 
ed of  bread  and  butter,  lamb 
chops,  Saratoga  potatoes, 
and  stewed  prunes.  After 
luncheon,  in  the  English 
recitation,  we  studied  the 
song  Sweet  and  Low,  from 
Tennyson's  Princess.  Then 
for  my  theme  I  wrote  an 
exposition  on  the  art  of 
making  a  rabbit-trap.  When 
work  was  done.  Will  Ver- 
non and  I  got  the  head  mas- 
ter's permission  to  ride  our 
bicycles  to  the  top  of  South 
Hill.  At  half  past  five  we 
were  in  school  again.  After 
a  shower-bath  and  a  quick 
rub  we  were  ready  for  din- 
ner. 


A  similar  distinction  applies  to  another  class  of  sub- 
jects :  the  story  of  a  particular  lump  of  copper,  from  the 
time  it  is  mined  till  it  is  turned  out  of  the  mint  a  bright, 
new  cent,  is,  strictly  speaking,  narration ;  the  explanation 
of  the  general  process  of  transforming  copper  ore  into 
coin  is  exposition.  In  a  case  like  this  the  narration  and 
the  exposition  are  often  practically  the  same  thing. 
Usually,  however,  themes  on  processes  of  manufacture 
may  be  regarded  as  exposition,  for  the  story  form  is  em- 
ployed merely  as  an  aid  to  exposition. 

Nari'ation  is  often  a  subordinate  part  of  exposition. 


6  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

A  general  statement  may  be  illustrated  or  explained  by 
a  story,  as  in  the  following  bit  of  exposition  from  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson's  Virginibus  Puerisque: 

There  is  no  duty  we  so  much  underrate  as  the  duty  of 
being  happy.  By  being  happy  we  sow  anonymous  benefits 
upon  the  world,  which  remain  unknown  even  to  ourselves, 
or,  when  they  are  disclosed,  surprise  nobody  so  much  as  the 
benefactor.  The  other  day  a  ragged,  barefoot  boy  ran 
down  the  street  after  a  marble,  with  so  jolly  an  air  that 
he  set  everyone  he  passed  into  good  humor;  one  of  these 
persons,  who  had  been  delivered  from  more  than  usually 
black  thoughts,  stopped  the  little  fellow  and  gave  him  some 
money  with  this  remark:  "You  see  what  sometimes  comes 
of  looking  pleased."  If  he  had  looked  pleased  before,  he 
had  now  to  look  both  pleased  and  mystified.  For  my  part 
I  justify  this  encouragement  of  smiling  rather  than  tearful 
children ;  I  do  not  want  to  pay  for  tears  anywhere  but 
upon  the  stage,  but  I  am  prepared  to  deal  largely  in  the 
opposite  commodity.  A  happy  man  or  woman  is  a  better 
tiling  to  find  than  a  five-pound  note. 

4.  Narration  Distinguished  from  Argumentation. — The 
line  between  narration  and  argumentation  is  generally 
clear  and  broad.  There  is  no  possibility  of  confusing 
the  two  following  specimens: 

NARRATION  v     ARGUMENTATION 

On  Saturday  Harvard  The  rules  for  football 
played  an  exciting  game  of  should  be  changed.  As  the 
football  with  Yale.  In  the  game  is  now  played  one  or 
first  half  the  Harvard  full-  more  men  are  seriously  in- 
back  tried  to  kick  a  goal  jured  in  every  important 
from  the  field,  but  just  as  match.  This  statement  is 
he  let  go  the  ball  he  was  proved  by  the  record  of  the 
thrown  heavily  and  broke  a  present  year.  In  the  last 
rib.  He  had  hardly  been  contest  between  Harvard 
carried  from  the  fit-Id  when  and  Yale  the  Harvard  full- 
the    Yale   left   end   had    his  back  and  the  Yale  left  end 


FOUR    KINDS   OF   "WRITING  7 

nose    smashed    in    a    scrim-  and   quarter-back  were   dis- 

mage.     The  half  ended  in  a  abled. 

tie.  The  mass-plays  are  the 
In  the  last  half  the  Yale  worst.  In  the  Harvard 
quarter-back  was  knocked  game  the  gravest  injury  was 
senseless  while  stopping  a  that  of  the  Yale  quarter- 
mass-play.  Once  he  was  back,  who  was  stopping  a 
out  of  the  way,  the  Harvard  mass-play.  The  rule  re- 
left  tackle,  who  had  the  garding  this  form  of  attack, 
ball,  made  a  touchdown,  the  therefore,  needs  radical 
only  score  in  the  whole  amendment, 
game. 

Narration  is  often  valuable  to  illustrate  or  enforce  an 
argument.  Just  as  a  man  may  explain  his  point,  so  he 
may  prove  it  by  telling  a  story.  The  foregoing  narra- 
tive might,  with  scarcely  a  change,  be  incorporated  in  an 
argument  for  amending  football  rules.  As  proof  that 
some  boys  enjoy  writing  themes,  one  might  relate  the 
true  tale  of  a  lad  who  found  the  task  pleasanter  even 
than  solving  problems  in  algebra.  These  narratives 
would  be  subordinate  parts  of  arguments. 

5.  Description  Distinguished  from  Exposition. — In  one 
respect,  the  distinction  between  description  and  exposi- 
tion is  like  that  between  narration  and  exposition:  de- 
scription treats  the  particular;  exposition,  the  general. 
A  description  of  some  particular  golf  links,  since  in  de- 
tails they  differ  from  all  others,  does  not  describe  any 
others;  but  an  exposition  of  the  method  of  laying  out 
links  presents  typical  features  and  is  equally  applicable 
to  all.  The  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  writing 
will  be  made  clear  by  the  following  specimens : 

DESCRIPTION  EXPOSITION 

A    huge    old    oak    in    the  The  oak  is  a  tree  or  shrub 

yard   of  the  house    where  I      of  the  genus  quercus,  a  large 
lived  as   a  little  boy  is  one      and  widely  dispersed  group, 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 


of  the  most  vivid  pictures 
in  my  memory.  The  massive 
trunk  was  nearly  three  feet 
in  diameter.  At  about  eight 
feet  above  the  ground  it  be- 
gan putting  out  branches, 
several  of  the  lower  ones  al- 
most at  right  angles  with  the 
main  stem.  One  of  these 
limbs  supported  a  swing  and 
another  a  trapeze,  on  wliich 
we  boys  used  to  skin  the  cat. 
A  ladder  led  to  a  point  about 
twelve  feet  from  the  ground, 
where  a  sort  of  summer- 
house  was  built  among  the 
branches. 


chiefly  of  forest  trees.  In 
its  nobler  representatives  the 
oak,  as  the  "monarch  of  the 
forest,"  has  always  been  im- 
pressive, and  it  anciently 
held  an  important  place  in 
religious  and  civil  cere- 
monies. Oak  chaplets  were 
a  reward  of  civic  merit 
among  the  Romans ;  the 
Druids  venerated  the  oak  as 
well  as  the  mistletoe  which 
grows  upon  it.  The  timber 
of  many  species  is  of  great 
economic  value,  and  the 
bark  of  several  is  used  for 
tanning  and  dyeing  and  in 
medicine.  —  Condensed  from 
the  Century  Dictionary. 


When  the  individuals  of  a  class  are  unlike,  the  dis- 
tinction between  description  and  exposition  is  plain. 
There  would  be  no  mistaking  the  description  of  a  partic- 
ular Chinese  laundr3'nian  for  an  exposition  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  Chinamen,  or  the  description  of  a  pet  calico 
pony  for  such  an  exposition  as  an  encyclopedia  article  on 
the  horse.  When,  however,  the  individuals  are  alike,  the 
description  and  the  exposition  may  be  identical.  A  de- 
scription of  the  latest  automobile  will  serve  also  as  an  ex- 
position of  the  construction  of  a  thousand  others  of  the 
same  pattern  ;  a  description  of  the  appearance  and  habits 
of  a  white  mouse  might  be  almost  the  same  as  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  structure  and  habits  of  white  mice.  In  prac- 
tice, this  description  which  is  the  same  as  exposition  may 
be  regarded  as  an  exposition. 

Description,  like  narration,  is  often  a  subordinate  part 


FOUR    KINDS    OF   WRITING  9 

of  exposition,  as  in  the  following  discussion  of  our  in- 
difference to  the  teachings  of  great  books : 

It  is  not  vice,  not  selfishness,  not  dulness  of  brain,  which 
we  have  to  lament;  but  an  unreachable  schoolboy's  reckless- 
ness, only  differing  from  the  true  schoolboy's  in  its  inca- 
pacity of  being  helped,  because  it  acknowledges  no  master. 
There  is  a  curious  type  of  us  given  in  one  of  the  lovely, 
neglected  works  of  the  last  of  our  great  painters.  It  is  a 
drawing  of  Kirkby  Lonsdale  churchyard,  and  of  its  brook 
and  valley  and  hills  and  folded  morning  sky  beyond.  And 
unmindful  alike  of  these  and  of  the  dead  who  have  left 
these  for  other  valleys  and  other  skies,  a  group  of  school- 
boys have  piled  their  little  books  upon  a  grave,  to  strike 
them  off  with  stones.  So  also  we  play  with  the  words  of 
the  dead  that  would  teach  us,  and  strike  them  far  from 
us  with  our  bitter,  reckless  will;  little  thinking  that  those 
leaves  which  the  wind  scatters  had  been  piled,  not  only 
upon  a  gravestone,  but  upon  the  seal  of  an  enchanted  vault 
— nay,  the  gate  of  a  great  city  of  sleeping  kings,  who 
would  awake  for  us  and  walk  with  us  if  we  knew  how  to  call 
them  by  their  names. — John  Ruskin  in  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

Another  distinction,  already  mentioned  on  page  4, 
is  the  common  use  of  the  word  description  in  a  broader 
sense  than  in  rhetoric.  Ordinarily  people  talk  of  de- 
scribing the  construction  of  golf  links  or  the  character- 
istics of  Chinamen,  but,  strictly  speaking,  writing  which 
deals  with  the  class  rather  than  the  individual  is  expo- 
sition. 

6.   Description  Distinguished  from  Argumentation. — 

Generally  the  distinction  between  description  and  argu- 
mentation is  plain,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

DESCRIPTION  ARGUMENTATION 

The  camp  where  I  spent  I    want    to    convince    you 

my  last  summer   vacation  is      that  our   camp   in    INIaine   is 
in  a  pine  grove  on  the  edge      a  pleasanter  place  to  spend 


10 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


of  one  of  the  Rangeley  lakes 
ill  Maine.  Tlie  building  is 
a  cottage  with  shingled  roof 
and  outside  walls,  but  with- 
out plaster  ceilings  or  parti- 
tions. The  ground  floor 
contains  a  large  living- 
room,  a  dining-room,  a  bed- 
room, and  a  cook-room ;  and 
the  second  floor,  three  bed- 
rooms fitted  up  with  wooden 
cots  and  little  wooden  wash- 
stands.  In  the  living-room 
is  a  huge  brick  fire-place, 
where  we  have  a  brisk  blaze 
on  chilly  evenings  or  damp 
days.  When  the  weather  is 
fine  we  spend  most  of  our 
time  on  a  wide  veranda  that 
runs  round  three  sides  of 
the  cottage. 

Across  the  lake  is  the 
mouth  of  a  small  stream,  up 
whose  narrow,  winding  chan- 
nel we  are  able  to  paddle 
our  canoes  at  least  half  a 
mile.  Near  the  head  of 
navigation  are  high  hills, 
heavily  wooded. 


the  summer  than  your  resort 
on  the  south  shore  of  Long 
Island. 

In  the  first  place,  we  are 
several  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea,  where  the  air  is  far 
more  bracing  than  the  soft 
winds  of  the  south  shore. 
W'c  always  come  home  from 
Maine  feeling  like  new  peo- 
ple. 

JMy  second  reason  is  that 
our  camp  is  in  a  pine  grove 
some  distance  from  civiliza- 
tion. We  are  fifteen  miles 
from  a  railway  and  two 
from  the  nearest  small  vil- 
lage. While  you  have  to 
wear  clothes  suitable  for  the 
crowded  streets  of  a  fash- 
ionable Long  Island  village, 
we  can  dress  for  the  woods. 
We  are  not  invited  to  par- 
ties and  dances,  but  we 
tramp,  climb  hills,  paddle  in 
the  canoe,  or  fish  all  day. 
Then  early  in  the  evening 
we  are  ready  to  go  to  bed 
and  sleep  soundly. 


An  argument  may,  like  an  exposition,  frequently  contain 
a  subordinate  passage  of  description. 

7.  Exposition  Distinguished  from  Argumentation. — 
Exposition  often  shades  almost  imperceptibly  into  argu- 
mentation. To  explain  the  policy  of  our  government  in 
the  Pliilippincs  is  to  expound,  to  try  to  convince  the 
reader  of  the  propriety  of  that  policy  is  to  argue;  but 
the  argument  is  not  clear  without  some  explanation  of 
the  policy,  and  the  exact  point  where  the  explanation 


FOUR   KINDS   OF    WRITING 


11 


stops  and  the  argument  begins  may  be  hard  to  find.  In- 
deed, most  arguments  contain  much  exposition.  In  the 
following  examples  the  distinction  is  obvious: 


EXPOSITION 

Small  colleges  in  the  rural 
districts  get  hold  of  a  mul- 
titude of  poor  men,  who 
might  never  resort  to  a  dis- 
tant place  of  education. 
They  set  learning  in  a  visi- 
ble form,  plain,  indeed,  and 
humble,  but  dignified  even 
in  her  humility,  before  the 
eyes  of  a  rustic  people,  in 
whom  the  love  of  knowledge, 
naturally  strong,  might  nev- 
er break  from  the  bud  into 
the  flower  but  for  the  care 
of  some  zealous  gardener. 
They  give  the  chance  of  ris- 
ing in  some  intellectual 
walk  of  life  to  many  a 
strong  and  earnest  nature 
who  might  otherwise  have 
remained  an  artisan  or 
storekeeper,  and  perhaps 
failed  in  those  vocations. 
They  light  up  in  many  a 
country  town  what  is  at  first 
only  a  farthing  rushlight, 
but  which,  when  the  to^vn 
swells  to  a  city,  or  when  en- 
dowments flow  in,  or  when 
some  able  teacher  is  placed 
in  charge,  becomes  a  lamp 
of  growing  flame,  which 
may  finally  throw  its  rays 
over     the     whole     state     in 


argumentation 

My  dear  Father: 

I  wish  you  were  as  firmly 
convinced  as  I  am  of  the  im- 
portance of  my  going  to 
college. 

My  first  reason  is  that  I 
want  to  be  a  lawyer.  I 
know  that  the  farm  is  profit- 
able, that  you  are  growing 
old,  and  that  you  are  ready 
to  shift  much  of  the  respon- 
sibility to  my  shoulders  as 
soon  as  I  am  through  the 
academy.  But  the  truth  is 
I  do  not  like  farm-work  or 
farm-life;  and  however  much 
money  I  might  make  out  of 
the  place,  I  should  always 
feel  as  if  my  life  were  a  fail- 
ure. On  the  other  hand,  I 
should  enjoy  law,  and  I  am 
willing  to  work  hard  in  order 
to  succeed  in  the  profession. 
Beyond  that,  the  law  might 
in  time  give  me  a  chance  to 
enter  politics,  an  ambition 
that  your  own  good  record  in 
the  State  Legislature  has  en- 
couraged. If  then  I  am  to 
be  a  competent  lawyer,  I 
ought  to  go  through  college. 

My  second  reason  is  that  I 
want  a  better  general  educa- 
tion  than   the   academy   can 


12  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

which  it  stands.     In  some  of  give.       Even  if   I   return  to 

these    smaller    Western   col-  the  farm  I  wish  this  broader 

leges   one  finds  to-day  men  education.   So  wliichever  call- 

of   great   ability    and    great  ing  I  follow,  I  ouglit  first  to 

attainments. — James    Bryce  spend  four  years  in  college, 

in    The  American   Common-  Your  affectionate  son, 

wealth.  John  Williams. 


8.  The  Essentials  of  Composition. — In  all  four  kinds 
of  writing  it  is  necessary  to  observe  three  principles : 
unity,  order,  and  proportion;  that  is,  to  put  in  every- 
thing necessary  for  completeness  and  nothing  more,  to 
arrange  the  material  logically,  and  to  assign  each  phase 
of  the  subject  its  due  proportion  of  space.  The  compo- 
sition should  also  possess  the  qualities  of  clearness  and 
interest. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Define  briefly  the  four  kinds  of  writing. 

a.  Distinguish  between  narration  and  description. 

3.  Write  a  narrative  and  a  description,  each  of  100  words,  on  a 
subject  relating  to  some  outdoor  sport. 

4.  Write  a  narrative  of  100  words,  containing  about  twenty-five 
words  of  description.      (For  a  list  of  subjects  see  pages  54-57.) 

5.  Write  a  description  of  100  words,  containing  about  twenty- 
five  words  of  narration.     (For  a  list  of  subjects  seepages  102,  103.) 

C.  Distinguish  between  narration  and  exposition. 

7.  Write  a  narrative  and  an  exposition,  each  of  100  words,  on  a 
subject  relating  to  some  form  of  recreation. 

8.  Write  an  exposition  of  100  words,  containing  about  twenty- 
five  words  of  narration.     (For  a  list  of  subjects  see  pages  138-141.) 

9.  Distinguish  between  narration  and  argumentation. 

10.  Write  a  narrative  and  an  argument,  each  of  100  words,  on 
some  subject  connected  with  school  lessons.  (For  list  of  subjects  see 
pages  230-231.) 


FOUR   KINDS   OF   WRITING  13 

11.  Distinguish  between  description  and  exposition. 

12.  Write  a  description  and  an  exposition,  each  of   loo  wordi, 
on  some  aubject  connected  with  animal  peta. 

13.  Write  an  exposition  of  100  words,  containing  about  twenty- 
five  words  of  description. 

14.  Distinguish  between  description  and  argumentation. 

15.  Write  a  description  and  an  argument,  each  of  100  words,  on 
some  subject  connected  with  the  place  in  which  you  live. 

16.  Distinguish  between  exposition  and  argumentation. 

17.  Write  an  exposition  and  an  argument,  each  of  100  words,  on 
some  subject  connected  with  your  plans  for  spending  next  year. 

18.  What  are  the  three  principles  to  be  observed  in  all  writing? 
xg.  What  two  qualities  should  writing  possess  ? 


CHAPTER    II 

NABRATION 

9.  Kinds  of  Narration. — A  narrative  may,  like  Caesar's 
*'  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,"  occupy  but  a  sentence,  or 
it  may,  like  Macaulay's  History  of  England,  occupy  five 
stout  volumes ;  it  may  tell  about  a  quarrel  on  the  way  to 
school,  or  it  may  tell  the  doings  of  a  lifetime ;  it  may  be 
as  simple  as  the  fable,  The  Fox  and  the  Grapes,  or  it 
ma}'  be  as  elaborate  as  Thackera3''.s  novel,  Vanity  Fair. 
Although  the  word  covers  this  broad  field,  and  although 
pretty  much  the  same  principles  underlie  the  construc- 
tion of  all  narratives,  we  need  not  here  discuss  the  man- 
agement of  material  on  the  scale  of  Macaulay's  History ^ 
of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  or  of  Vanity  Fair.  For 
the  narrative  written  in  school  usually  contains  only 
from  twenty-five  to  one  thousand  words. 

10.  Sources  of  Material. — For  such  narratives,  the 
three  sources  of  material  are  personal  experience,  the 
imagination,  and  books.  The  first  source  should  be 
drawn  on  most  freely  by  beginners  because  the  use  of 
such  subjects  helps  to  develop  the  powers  of  observation 
and  to  give  a  simple  and  direct  style.  But  whatever  the 
advantages  of  one  kind  of  material,  practice  with  all 
three  is  desirable. 

11.  Material  from  Observation. — From  personal  obser- 
vation one  may  choose  a  single  event  or  any  set  of  events 

which  together  form  a  story ;  one  may  range  from  an 

14 


NARRATIOIT  15 

account  of  missing  a  street-car  to  the  history  of  one's  life. 
The  amount  and  kind  of  material  are  indicated  by  the 
following  narratives  and  the  list  of  subjects  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter.  All  the  incidents  in  these  examples  are 
such  as  occur  in  the  experience  of  the  average  student. 
Whatever  interest  there  may  be  is  due  to  nothing  ex- 
traordinary in  the  subjects  but  to  some  skill  in  handling 
commonplace  material. 

^,y  BADLY    SCARED 

In  the  spring,  when  the  ice  in  the  river  was  breaking  up, 
we  boys  used  to  make  for  a  certain  cove  a  mile  or  so  below 
the  town  to  "run  benders"  on  the  floating  cakes.  In  the 
excitement  we  often  went  much  farther  from  the  shore  than 
was  safe,  and  on  one  occasion  I  foimd  myself  on  a  patch 
of  ice  which  had  broken  loose  from  the  rest  and  was  sailing 
down  stream.  I  shouted  to  my  companions,  some  of  wliom 
immediately  started  for  the  town  to  get  boats;  but  before 
help  could  come  I  should  be  a  mile  or  two  away,  and  what 
would  happen  in  the  meantime  I  didn't  know.  How  did  I 
escape?  Why,  the  cake  calmly  drifted  into  another  cove 
some  distance  below,  and  I  scrambled  ashore  and  walked 
home. 

A    PUZZLE 

Before  I  was  four  years  old  I  used  to  sit  for  hours  in  the 
great  oak  chair  in  my  father's  study,  and  gaze  with  wonder 
at  a  framed  picture  on  the  mantelpiece.  I  admired  the 
picture  very  much  indeed,  but  I  could  not  quite  understand 
it.  It  seemed  to  have  two  spaced  lines  of  splendid  colors : 
in  the  first  line,  gold,  blue,  red,  and  green ;  in  the  second, 
blue,  red,  green,  and  gold.  One  day  I  asked  my  father 
what  this  strange  picture  meant;  and  he  told  me  that 
it  was  a  verse  from  the  Bible,  painted  in  colors  instead  of 
being  printed  in  black  ink.  I  then  asked  him  to  read  it  to 
me;  but  he  said  No,  that  I  had  better  pick  it  out  for  myself. 
As  soon  as  I  had  learned  to  read  at  all,  I  tried  hard  to  make 
out  the  verse,  but  I  foiuid  the  task  difficult,  because  some 


16  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION- 

of  the  letters  were  not  at  all  like  those  in  my  reader.  I 
studied  it  and  puzzled  over  it,  so  that  by  the  time  I  was  five 
I  recognized  the  words,  "In" — "we" — "shall" — "if" — 
"we" — "not."  There  remained  a  gold  word,  two  blue  ones 
and  a  green  one,  which  I  did  not  know.  The  next  winter, 
when  I  was  six,  I  had  worked  out  all  the  words  but  the 
green  one.  I  seated  myself  in  the  oak  chair  one  rainy  Sun- 
day afternoon  and  looked  up  as  usual  at  the  verse,  won- 
dering to  myself  what  f-a-i-n-t  could  spell.  Suddenly  I 
remembered  that  yesterday  in  my  speller  I  had  had  the 
word  p-a-i-n-t,  which  spelled  "paint."  If  p-a-i-n-t  was 
"paint,"  then  f-a-i-n-t  was — why  "faint,"  of  course.  I 
touched  my  father's  hand  as  he  sat  reading  the  newspaper, 
in  the  chair  opposite  me;  and,  riveting  my  eyes  on  the  text, 
I  read  in  a  timid  voice: 

"In  —  due  —  season  —  we  —  shall  —  reap  —  if  —  we 
faint  —  not." 

When  I  returned  to  the  nursery  I  held  in  my  hand  a  big 
piece  of  molasses  candy. 

THE    STORY    OF    MY    LIFE 

I  was  born  in  the  town  of  Wollaston,  Massachusetts,  in 
1876.  Of  my  early  boyhood  I  recall  no  imusual  incidents 
that  might  serve  to  distinguish  me  from  ordinary  village 
youngsters.  I  jolayed  baseball  in  the  streets,  went  berrying, 
stole  rides  on  wagons,  and  smoked  my  first  cigar.  At  the 
age  of  ten  I  began  to  display  liistrionic  talent,  and,  having 
carefully  collected  a  company  of  players  from  among  my 
companions,  I  gave  a  number  of  shows  in  a  large  tent  in 
the  backyard.  The  admission  usually  charged  was  ten  pins, 
but  sometimes  we  gave  a  loftier  tone  to  our  entertainments 
by  charging  one  cent  for  reserved  seats.  If  I  remember 
correctly,  the  advance  sale  of  reserved  seats  on  such  occa- 
sions was  not  very  large.  As  I  grew  older  I  took  up  the 
usual  fads  of  boys:  I  collected  stamps  and  old  coins  and 
dabbled  disastrously  in  amateur  pliotography. 

It  was  not  until  I  was  fourteen  that  signs  of  future  great- 
ness began  to  appear.  While  attending  grammar  school  I 
one  day  wrote  out  and  circulated  among  my  schoolmates  a 
little  paper  wliich  I  called  The  Corsair.  The  name,  which 
immediately  suggests  tales  of  dark  and  bloody  deeds,  was 


NARRATION"  17 

taken,  I  believe,  from  the  history  lesson  which  we  had  re- 
cited that  day.  The  paper  consisted  of  two  sheets  of  fools- 
cap closely  written  over;  it  contained  some  poetry,  school 
news,  and  two  illustrations,  all  of  which  were  original  and 
all  of  which  I  had  produced  during  study  hours,  while 
with  a  big  geography  in  front  of  me  I  had  pretended  to  be 
deeply  absorbed  in  tracing  the  course  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
and  in  memorizing  the  names  of  the  principal  cities  in 
Florida.  Since  there  was  no  subscription  price.  The  Cor- 
sair was  so  highly  successful  that  my  companions  begged 
me  for  a  second  number.  The  result  was  that  I  continued  to 
write  out  a  new  number  of  the  paper  every  week  during 
the  school  year.  I  devoted  much  of  my  spare  time  to  getting 
up  the  paper;  it  was  no  longer  written  in  school  hours,  it 
grew  in  size  and  numbered  several  of  the  scholars  as  con- 
tributors. 

During  our  first  year  in  the  high  school  a  friend  and  I 
conceived  the  idea  of  publishing  an  amateur  paper  on  a 
business  basis.  The  result  was  that  in  January,  1892,  The 
Sentinel  appeared.  My  friend  Valentine  was  publisher,  I 
was  editor.  The  paper,  which  was  printed  for  us  in  Boston, 
was  to  be  issued  monthly.  The  first  number  was  a  great 
success.  An  amateur  venture  of  this  kind  was  something 
new  for  our  townspeople ;  consequently  advertisers  bought 
space  liberally,  and  we  received  a  large  number  of  subscrip- 
tions. 

We  soon  found,  however,  that  our  paper  was  not  paying 
expenses,  and  we  decided  that  the  only  way  to  make  both 
ends  meet  was  to  jjrint  it  ourselves.  Accordingly  we  went 
into  partnership  and  bought  a  printing-press  and  a  stock 
of  type.  My  parents  gave  us  a  large  front  room  on  the 
second  floor  of  our  house  to  fix  up  as  we  liked.  The  next 
number  of  The  Sentinel  was  no  discredit  to  us  as  printers, 
for  we  both  had  acquired  some  knowledge  of  typesetting 
from  our  printer  friends.  Gradually  we  branched  out  into 
job  printing,  not  because  we  were  in  particular  need  of 
earning  money,  but  because  we  thought  printing  great  fun. 
It  was  fun;  I  never  enjoyed  anything  better  than  setting 
type,  and  if  I  were  obliged  to-day  to  choose  a  trade,  I 
should  at  once  choose  that  of  a  printer.  Our  business  so 
increased  that  we  were  forced  to  purchase  one  of  the 
largest  foot-power  presses  and  add  to  our  stock  of  type. 


18  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

During  tlie  year  1891  we  printed  The  Phccnix,  the  high 
school  paper.  We  carried  on  our  jorinting  business  in  ad- 
dition to  our  studies,  and  many  times  when  we  were  rushed 
witli  work,  Valentine  and  I  sat  up  and  worked  all  night, 
going  to  school  the  next  morning  as  usual.  But  since  our 
parents  began  to  remonstrate  with  us,  we  were  finally 
obliged  to  hire  a  man  to  help  us.  We  carried  on  tlie  busi- 
ness i\\)  to  tlic  time  of  our  graduation  from  the  high  school, 
and  we  found  it  botli  profitable  and  fascinating. 

In  my  last  year  at  the  high  scliool  the  pupils  presented 
a  drama  in  which  my  liistrionic  talent  again  had  an  oppor- 
tunity for  display.  The  drama  was  entitled  Better  than 
Gold,  and  I  was  cast  as  the  rejected  lover  and  heavy  villain. 
After  the  performance  my  friends  said  I  played  the  part 
to  perfection,  but  this  remark  I  was  inclined  to  take  as  a 
rather  doubtful  compliment. 

12.  Material  from  the  Imagination. — Stories  from  the 
imagination  fall  into  two  classes:  those  which  are  fan- 
tastic and  unreal,  like  fairy  talcs ;  and  tliose  which  are 
true  to  life.  In  the  first  class  are  the  Arabian  Nights 
and  Alice  in  Wo7idcrland,  in  which  the  incidents  are  im- 
possible ;  in  the  second  are  Tom  BrowTi's  School  Days 
and  Little  Women,  in  which  the  adventures  are  such 
as  might  befall  everj-daj  bo^'s  and  girls.  In  writing 
from  the  imagination  most  beginners  are  less  successful 
with  fairy  talcs  than  with  stories  based  on  real  life. 
Even  in  such  work  they  may  be  too  ambitious,  may  want 
to  tell  about  love-making,  hunting  adventures  in  the 
Rockies,  fights  with  Indians,  and  wiles  of  detectives. 
Since  the  average  boy  or  girl  has  only  a  vague,  second- 
hand knowledge  of  love-making,  or  frontier  life,  and  of 
detective  skill,  the  stories  are  colorless  and  feeble,  like 
that  entitled  Hoza  Two  Young  Men  Got  Rich,  page  45. 

If,  however,  a  pupil  will  lay  his  scenes  in  places  which 
he  knows,  will  model  his  characters  upon  such  people  as 


NAERATION"  19 

he  meets,  and  will  contrive  incidents  within  common  ex- 
perience, he  may  produce  a  vivid  tale.  In  the  following 
examples  the  events — a  policeman  sleeping  on  his  beat, 
children  at  a  funeral — are  such  as  almost  anyone  might 
have  observed. 


ONE    HOT    AFTERNOON 

Patrolman  Darcy  was  on  the  outskirts  of  his  beat.  The 
many  sandy,  vacant  lots  on  the  other  side  of  the  street  gave 
a  barren,  spiritless  appearance  to  the  familiar  landscape. 
The  July  sun  that  afternoon  was  enough  to  make  anybody 
drowsy,  and  the  lazy  swing  of  Darcy's  club  and  the  slow- 
ness of  his  saunter  indicated  that  he  was  not  proof  against 
summer  influences.  As  he  went  along  he  could  hear  the 
distant  hum  of  a  street-car  and  the  faint  clang  of  an  ice- 
cream bell  somewhere  in  the  next  block.  How  pleasant  it 
would  be  to  sit  down  on  some  shady  door-step  and  enjoy 
a  ten-cent  box  of  vanilla !  He  passed  the  oil-works, 
where  the  sight  of  the  greasy,  sweaty  toilers  in  the  yard 
made  him  glad  that  he  was  a  policeman.  But  he  wished 
that  ice-cream  man  would  come  down  on  Castle  Street. 
Just  then  he  heard  the  bell  not  far  off"  and  a  moment  later 
he  saw  the  cart  turn  the  corner. 

Officer  Darcy  found  a  convenient  doorstep  and  ate  his 
cream.  He  had  not  realized  that  he  was  so  weary.  After 
all,  a  policeman  hasn't  the  easiest  job  in  the  world.  He 
decided  to  rest  a  few  minutes  longer. 

Then  he  had  a  dream.  He  was  patroling  his  beat,  think- 
ing of  possible  chances  to  distinguish  himself,  and  seeing 
in  his  mind's  eye  some  epaulets  on  his  shoulders.  Suddenly 
there  was  a  great  noise;  a  frantic  horse  hitched  to  a  light 
buggy  swerved  round  the  corner.  To  the  seat  of  the 
vehicle  clung  a  young  girl,  her  face  blanched  with  terror. 
It  was  the  work  of  an  instant  for  Darcy  to  leap  at  the 
horse's  bridle,  bend  the  animal's  head  down  as  far  as  he 
could,  and  bring  the  runaway  to  a  standstill.  Proudly  he 
received  the  profuse  thanks  of  the  young  woman,  who  had 
reccrvered  from  her  awful  fright  and  stood  beside  him,  pale 
but  smiling.     Best  of  all,  the  sergeant  appeared  and  jotted 


20  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 

down  something  opposite  Patrolman  Darcy's  name  in  his 
note-book. 

At  this  glorious  crisis  Darcy  felt  a  hand  on  his  shoulder. 
He  awoke.     There   stood  Sergeant  Bliss. 

"Asleep  on  your  beat,  eh !  I  guess  you'll  take  a  vacation 
in  about  a  week.     Now  go  and  mind  your  business." 

THE    play's    the    THING 

It  was  the  day  of  the  exhibition.  Hattie  and  Sadie  and 
Emmy  Lou  stood  at  the  the  gate  of  the  school.  They  had 
spent  the  morning  in  rehearsing.  At  noon  they  had  been 
sent  home  with  instructions  to  return  at  half  past  two.  The 
exhibition  would  begin  at  three.  It  was  not  two  o'clock,  and 
the  three  stood  at  the  gate,  the  first  to  return. 

They  were  in  the  same  piece.  It  was  The  Play.  In  the 
play  Hattie  and  Sadie  and  Emmy  Lou  found  themselves  the 
orphaned  children  of  a  soldier  who  had  failed  to  return 
from  the  war.  It  was  a  very  sad  piece.  Sadie  had  to  weep, 
and  more  than  once  Emmy  Lou  had  found  tears  in  her  own 
eyes,  watching  her. 

When  Aunt  Cordelia  heard  they  must  dress  to  suit  the 
part  she  came  to  see  Miss  Carrie,  the  teacher,  and  so  did 
the  mamma  of  Sadie  and  the  mamma  of  Hattie. 

"Dress  them  in  a  kind  of  mild  mourning,"  Miss  Carrie 
explained,  "not  too  deep,  or  it  will  seem  too  real,  and,  as 
three  little  sisters,  suppose  we  dress  them  alike." 

And  now  Hattie  and  Sadie  and  Emmy  Lou  stood  at  the 
gate  ready  for  the  play.  Stiffly  immaculate  white  dresses, 
with  beltings  of  black  sashes,  flared  jauntily  out  above  spot- 
less white  stockings  and  sober  little  black  slippers,  while 
black-bound  Leghorn  hats  shaded  three  anxious  little  coun- 
tenances. By  the  exact  centre  each  held  a  little  handker- 
chief, black-bordered. 

"Listen,"  said  Hattie,  "I  hear  music." 

There  was  a  church  across  the  street,  with  high  steps  and 
a  pillared  portico,  and  its  doors  were  opened. 

"It's  a  band,  and  marching,"  said  Hattie. 

The  orphaned  children  hurried  to  tlie  curb.  A  proces- 
sion was  turning  the  corner  and  coming  toward  them.  On 
either  sidewalk  crowds  of  men  and  boys  accompanied  it. 

Hattie  turned  with  a  face  of  conviction.     "I  know.     It's 


NAKRATION  21 

that  big  general's  funeral;  they're  bringing  him  here  to 
bury  with  the  soldiers." 

"We'll  never  see  a  thing  for  the  crowds"  despaired 
Sadie. 

"Let's  go  over  on  the  church  steps  and  see  it  go  by,"  said 
Hattie,  "it's  early." 

The  orphaned  children  hurried  across  the  street.  They 
climbed  the  steps.  But  at  the  church,  with  unexpected 
abruptness,  the  band  halted,  turned,  it  fell  apart,  and  the 
procession  came  right  on  through  and  up  the  steps. 
Aghast,  the  children  shrank  into  the  shadow  behind  a  pillar, 
while  upstreamed  from  the  carriages  below  an  unending 
line — bare-headed  men,  and  ladies  bearing  flowers.  Be- 
hind, below,  about,  closing  in  on  every  side,  crowded  people, 
a  sea  of  people.  The  children  found  themselves  swept  from 
their  hiding  by  the  crowd,  and  unwillingly  jostled  forward 
into  prominence. 

A  frowning  man  with  a  sword  in  his  hand  seemed  to  be 
threatening  everybody;  his  face  was  red  and  his  voice  was 
big,  and  he  glittered  with  many  buttons.  All  at  once  he 
caught  sight  of  the  orphaned  children,  and  threatened  them 
vehemently. 

"Here,"  said  the  frowning  man,  "right  in  here,"  and  he 
placed  them  in  line. 

The  orphaned  children  were  appalled,  and  even  in  the 
face  of  the  man  cried  out  in  protest.  But  the  man  with 
the  sword  did  not  hear,  for  the  reason  that  he  did  not  listen. 
Instead,  he  was  addressing  a  large  and  stout  lady  imme- 
diately behind  them. 

"Separated  from  the  family  in  the  confusion,  the  grand- 
children, evidently — just  see  them  in,  please." 

And  suddenly  the  orphaned  children  found  themselves  a 
part  of  the  procession  as  grandchildren.  The  nature  of  a 
procession  is  to  proceed.  And  the  grandchildren  proceeded 
with  it.  They  could  not  help  themselves.  There  was  no 
time  for  protest,  for,  pushed  by  the  crowd,  which  closed 
and  swayed  above  their  heads,  and  piloted  by  the  stout 
lady  close  behind,  they  were  swept  into  the  church  and  up 
the  aisle,  and  when  they  came  again  to  themselves  were  in 
the  inner  corner  of  a  pew  near  the  front. 

Hattie  in  the  corner  nudged  Sadie.  Sadie  urged  Emmy 
Lou,  who,  next  to  the  stout  lady,  touched  her  timidly.     "We 


22  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

have  to  get  out,"  said  Emmy  Lou;  "weVe  got  to  say  our 
parts." 

"Not  now,"  said  the  lady,  reassuringly;  "the  programme 
is  at  the  cemetery." 

Emmy  Lou  did  not  understand,  and  she  tried  to  tell  the 
lady. 

"S-h-h,"  said  that  person,  engaged  with  the  spectacle  and 
the  crowd,  "sh-h." 

Abaslied,  Emmy  Lou  sat,  sh-h-ed. 

Hattie  arose.  It  was  terrible  to  rise  in  church,  and  at  a 
funeral,  and  the  church  was  filled,  the  aisles  were  crowded, 
but  Hattie  rose.  Hattie  was  a  St.  George,  and  A  Dragon 
stood  between  her  and  The  Exhibition.  She  pushed  by 
Sadie  and  past  Emmy  Lou. 

At  H attic's  touch  the  stout  lady  turned  and  stared  at 
Hattie;  people  were  looking;  it  was  in  church;  Hattie's  face 
was  red. 

"You  can't  get  to  the  family,"  said  the  lady;  "you  couldn't 
move  in  the  crowd.  Besides,  I  promised  to  see  to  you.  Now 
be  quiet,"  she  added,  crossly,  when  Hattie  would  have 
spoken.  She  turned  away.  Hattie  crept  back,  vanquished 
by  this  dragon. 

"So  suitably  dressed,"  the  stout  lady  was  saying  to  a 
lady  beyond;  "grandchildren,  you  know." 

"She  says  they  are  grandchildren,"  echoed  the  whispers 
around. 

"Even  their  little  handkerchiefs  have  black  borders," 
somebody  beyond  replied. 

The  service  began,  and  there  fell  on  the  unwilling  grand- 
children the  submission  of  awe.  It  may  have  been  minutes, 
it  seemed  to  Emmy  Lou  hours,  before  there  came  a  general 
uprising.  Hattie  stood  up.  So  did  Sadie  and  Emmy  Lou. 
Their  skirts  no  longer  stood  out  jauntily;  they  were  quite 
crushed  and  subdued. 

As  the  pews  emptied,  the  stout  lady  passed  Emmj'  Lou 
on,  addressing  someone  beyond.  "Hold  to  this  one,"  she 
said,  "and  I'll  take  the  other  two,  or  they'll  get  tramped  in 
the  crowd." 

Slowly  the  crowd  moved,  and,  being  a  part  of  it,  Emmy 
Lou  moved,  too,  out  of  the  church  and  down  the  steps.  Then 
came  the  crashing  of  the  band  and  tlie  roll  of  carriages, 
and  she  found  herself  in  the  front  row  on  the  curb. 


NARRATIO^Sr  23 

The  man  with  the  brandishing  sword  was  threatening 
violently.  "One  more  carriage  is  here  for  the  family," 
called  the  man  with  the  sword.  His  face  was  red  and  his 
voice  was  hoarse.  His  glance  in  search  for  the  family  sud- 
denly fell  on  Emmy  Lou.  The  problem  solved  itself  for 
the  man  with  the  sword,  and  his  brow  cleared.  "Grandchil- 
dren next,"  roared  the  threatening  man. 

"Grandchildren,"  echoed  the  crowd. 

Hattie  and  Sadie  were  pushed  forward  from  somewhere, 
Hattie  lifting  her  voice.  But  what  was  the  cry  of  Hattie 
before  the  brazen  utterance  of  the  band?  Sadie  was  weep- 
ing wildly.  Emmy  Lou,  with  the  courage  of  despair,  cried 
out  in  the  grasp  of  the  threatening  man,  but  the  man,  lift- 
ing her  into  the  carriage,  was  speaking  himself,  and  to  the 
driver.  "Keep  an  eye  on  them, — separated  from  the  fam- 
ily," he  was  explaining,  and  a  moment  later  Hattie  and 
Sadie  were  lifted  after  Emmy  Lou  into  the  carriage,  and  as 
the  door  banged  their  carriage  moved  with  the  rest  up  the 
street. 

Through  tlie  carriage  windows  the  school,  with  its  arched 
doorways   and   windows,   gazed    frowningly,   reproachfully. 

Hattie  beat  upon  the  window  and  called  to  the  driver,  but 
no  mortal  ear  could  have  heard  above  that  band. 

Late  that  afternoon  a  carriage  stopped  at  a  corner  upon 
which  a  school  building  stood.  Descending,  the  colored  gen- 
tleman flung  open  the  door,  and  three  little  girls  crept  forth, 
three  crushed  little  girls,  three  limp  little  girls,  three  little 
girls  in  a  mild  kind  of  mourning. 

There  was  a  crowd  up  the  street.  It  seemed  to  be  at 
Emmy  Lou's  gate. 

"It  must  be  a  fire,"  said  Hattie. 

But  it  wasn't.  It  was  The  Exhibition,  the  Principal,  and 
Miss  Carrie,  and  teachers  and  pupils,  and  mammas  and 
aunties  and  Uncle  Charlie.  The  gathering  of  many  people 
caught  sight  of  them  presently,  and  came  to  meet  them. 

The  gentlemen  laughed,  Uncle  Charlie  and  the  minister 
and  the  papa  or  two  laughed  when  they  heard,  and  laughed 
again,  and  went  on  laughing.  But  the  ladies  could  see  noth- 
ing funny,  the  mammas  nor  Aunt  Cordelia.  Neither  could 
INIiss  Carrie.- — Arranged  from  Emmy  Lou  by  George 
Madden  Martin. 


24  EXCxLTSTI    COMPOSITION" 

13.  Material  from  Books. — Tlie  material  in  books  is 
endless.  One  muj  tell  again  in  his  own  words  the  whole 
or  a  part  of  some  story,  may  summarize  a  chapter  or 
two  of  narrative  in  a  voIuiir-  of  travels,  may  write  the 
biography  of  a  noted  man,  or  an  account  of  a  period 
in  liis  career,  or  may  narrate  an  event  or  a  series  of  events 
in  liistory.  ]\Iaterial  may  be  found  in  the  standard  ency- 
clopedias, histories,  and  biographies.  Knowledge  of  re- 
cent events  may  be  obtained  from  Appleton's  Annual 
Cyclopcedia  and  from  files  of  periodicals.  In  some  school 
and  in  many  public  libraries  these  files  ma\^  be  quickly 
consulted  by  means  of  Poole's  Index  to  Periodiccd  Lit- 
erature.    The  following  examples  are  models : 

THE  BLACK  DWAliF   BY    SIR    WALTER    SCOTT 

The  scene  of  The  Blade  Dwarf,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
is  laid  among  the  Elliots  and  Johnstons  of  tlie  Scottish 
border,  in  the  latter  part  of  Queen  Anne's  reign.  At  that 
time  the  general  discontent  lickl  out  fresh  encouragement 
to  the  partisans  of  the  banished  dynasty  of  the  Stuarts. 

In  this  turbulent  period  two  brave  but  very  peaceful  and 
loyal  persons,  Hobbie  Elliot  and  young  JNIr.  Earnsclilf,  are 
represented  as  plodding  their  way  Jioiue  from  deer-stalking. 
In  the  gloom  of  an  autumn  evening  they  are  encountered 
on  a  lonely  moor  by  a  strange  misshapen  dwarf,  who  re- 
jects their  proffered  courtesy  in  a  tone  of  insane  misan- 
thropy and  leaves  Hobbie  Elliot  perfectly  persuaded  that 
he  is  not  of  mortal  lineage,  but  a  goblin  of  no  amiable  dis- 
position. Elliot  and  his  friend  Mr.  Earnseliff,  who  is  a 
gentleman  of  less  credulity,  visit  the  Dwarf  again,  iiow- 
ever,  in  dayliglit,  when  they  find  him  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  small  cottage  in  that  dreary  s])ot.  With  some  casual 
assistance  the  fabric  is  completed;  and  the  Dwarf,  who  still 
maintains  the  same  re))ulsive  demeanor,  fairly  settled  in  it. 

In  the  meantime  poor  Robbie's  house  is  burned,  and  his 
cattle  and  his  bride,  Grace  Armstrong,  carried  off  by  the 
band    of    Westburnflat,    one   of   the    last    border    foragers. 


NAERATION  25 

This  robber  was  encouraged  and  instigated  chiefly  by  Mr. 
Vere^  the  profligate  Laird  of  Ellieslaw,  who  wishes  to  raise 
a  party  in  favor  of  the  Stuart  adherents,  the  Jacobites. 
Between  Mr.  Vere's  daughter  and  young  Earnscliff'  there  is 
an  attachment,  which  her  father  disapproves. 

The  mysterious  Dwarf  gives  Hobbie  an  oracular  hint  to 
seek  for  his  lost  bride  in  the  fortress  of  this  plunderer, 
Westburnflat.  Accordingly  Hobbie  and  his  friends,  under 
the  command  of  young  Earnscliff",  speedily  invest  the 
stronghold.  Then  Westburnflat  capitulates  and  leads  forth, 
to  the  astonishment  of  all  the  besiegers,  not  Grace  Arm- 
strong, but  Miss  Vere,  who,  by  some  unintelligible  refine- 
ment of  iniquity,  had  been  sequestered  by  her  worthy  father 
in  that  appropriate  custody. 

The  Dwarf,  who,  with  all  his  misanthropy,  is  the  most 
benevolent  of  human  beings,  gives  Hobbie  a  fur  bag  full 
of  gold,  and  contrives  to  have  his  bride  restored  to  him. 
He  is  likewise  consulted  in  secret  by  Miss  Vere,  who  is 
sadly  distressed,  like  all  other  fictitious  damsels,  by  her 
father's  threats  to  solemnize  a  forced  marriage  between  her 
and  a  detestable  baronet.  The  Dwarf  promises  to  appear 
and  deliver  her,  however  imminent  tlie  hazard  may  appear. 
Accordingly,  when  they  are  all  ranged  for  the  sacrificial 
wedding  before  the  altar  in  the  castle  chapel,  the  Dwarf's 
portentous  figure  pops  out  from  behind  a  monument.  He 
is  instantly  recognized  by  the  guilty  Ellieslaw  for  a  cer- 
tain Sir  Edward  Mauley,  who  was  the  cousin  and  destined 
husband  of  the  lady  whom  Ellieslaw  had  afterward  mar- 
ried. Sir  Edward  had  been  plunged  into  temporary  in- 
sanity by  the  shock  of  her  inconstancy.  On  his  recovery 
he  had  allowed  Ellieslaw  to  retain  the  greatest  part  of  the 
property  to  which  Sir  Edward  himself  might  have  succeeded 
on  the  death  of  the  Lady  of  Ellieslaw.  The  Dwarf,  Sir 
Edward,  had  been  supposed  to  be  sequestered  in  some  con- 
vent abroad,  when  he  thus  appears  to  protect  the  daughter 
of  his  early  love. 

The  desperate  Ellieslaw  at  first  thinks  of  having  recourse 
to  force,  and  calls  in  an  armed  band  which  he  had  that  day 
assembled,  in  order  to  favor  a  rising  of  the  Catholics.  He 
is  suddenly  surrounded,  however,  by  Hobbie  Elliot  and 
Earnscliff",  at  the  head  of  a  more  loyal  party,  who  have  just 
overpowered   the   insurgents   and   taken    possession   of    the 


26  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

castle.  Ellieslaw  and  tlic  detestable  baronet  of  course  take 
horse  and  shipping  forth  of  the  realm;  while  Ellieslaw's 
fair  daughter  is  given  away  to  Earnsclilf  by  the  benevolent 
Dwarf.  Tlie  latter  immediately  afterward  disa])pears  and 
seeks  a  more  profound  retreat,  bcj^ond  the  reach  of  their 
gratitude  and  gaiety. — Arranged  from  an  article  by  Fran- 
cis Jeffrey  in  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

TRADING    AT    MANILA    IN     1715 

We  arrived  at  Manila,  May  22,  1715.  Captain  Mirlotte 
sent  his  boat  on  shore  the  next  day  to  the  governor,  with 
a  letter,  very  respectful,  telling  the  governor  that,  having 
the  King  of  France's  commission,  he  hoped  that  he  should 
be  allowed  the  freedom  of  commerce  and  the  use  of  the 
port.  The  Spanish  governor  returned  a  very  civil  and 
obliging  answer,  and  immediately  granted  us  to  buy  what 
provisions  we  pleased  for  our  sup])ly ;  but  answered  that 
as  for  allowing  any  exchange  of  merchandises  or  giving 
leave  for  European  goods  to  be  brought  on  shore  there,  that 
he  was  not  empowered  to  grant. 

We  made  as  if  this  answer  was  satisfactory  enough  to 
us;  and  the  next  morning  Captain  Mirlotte  sent  his  boat 
on  shore  with  a  handsome  present.  The  governor  let 
the  captain  know  that  he  accepted  the  present,  and  the  men 
who  brought  it  were  handsomely  entertained  by  the  gov- 
ernor's order,  and  had  everyone  a  small  piece  of  gold. 

The  next  day  the  captain  went  on  shore  to  visit  the  gov- 
ernor, and  with  him  several  of  our  officers.  Captain  Mir- 
lotte was  then  made  to  understand  tliat,  though  the  gov- 
ernor could  not  admit  an  open  avowed  trade,  yet  that  the 
merchants  would  not  be  forbid  coming  on  board  our  ship 
and  trading  with  us  in  such  manner  as  we  should  be  very 
well  satisfied  with,  after  which  we  should  be  at  no  hazard 
of  getting  the  goods  we  should  sell  put  on  shore.  Soon 
afterwards  we  had  private  notice  that  the  governor  would 
make  us  a  visit  and  would  bring  with  him  some  merchants, 
who,  perhaps,  might  buy  some  of  our  cargo;  nor  were  we 
without  secret  information  that  even  the  governor  himself 
was  concerned  in  the  market  that  should  be  made. 

Upon  this  intelligence  our  supercargo  caused  several 
bales  of  English  and  French  goods  to  be  brought  up  and 


NARRATION"  27 

opened,  and  laid  so  in  the  steerage  and  upon  the  quarter- 
deck of  the  ship  that  the  governor  and  his  attendants 
should  see  them  as  they  passed  by.  While  the  governor 
was  dining  with  us,  two  gentlemen  of  his  company  took 
occasion  to  leave  the  rest  and  walked  about  the  ship;  and 
in  doing  this  they  seemed  as  it  were  by  chance  to  cast 
their  eyes  upon  our  bales  of  cloth  and  stuffs.  Our  super- 
cargo and  they  began  to  make  bargains  apace,  for  he  found 
they  had  not  only  money  enough,  but  an  abundance  of 
other  things  which  we  were  as  willing  to  take  as  money, 
particularly  spices,  China  ware,  tea,  raw  silks,  and  the 
like. 

The  next  day  three  Spanish  merchants  came  on  board 
us,  early  in  the  morning  before  it  was  light,  and  desired 
to  see  the  supercargo.  To  work  they  went  with  our  cargo, 
and  I  thought  once  they  would  have  bought  the  whole  ship's 
lading.  They  desired  to  stay  on  board  till  the  next  night, 
when,  soon  after  it  was  dark,  a  small  sloop  took  in  all  their 
goods. — -Arranged  from  A  New  Voyage  Round  the  World, 
by  Daniel  Defoe. 

CHARLES    lever's    EARLY    CAREER 

Charles  Lever  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1806,  the  son  of 
a  builder  or  architect.  At  school  he  was  very  much  flogged, 
and  the  odds  are  that  he  deserved  these  attentions,  for  he 
had  high  spirits  beyond  the  patience  of  dominies.  Hand- 
some, merry,  and  clever,  he  read  novels  in  school  hours,  wore 
a  ring,  and  set  up  as  a  dandy.  Even  then  he  was  in  love 
with  the  young  lady  whom  he  married  in  the  end.  At  a  fight 
with  boys  of  another  school  he  and  a  friend  placed  a  mine 
under  the  ground  occupied  by  the  enemy,  and  blew  them, 
more  or  less,  into  the  air.  Many  an  eyebrow  was  singed 
off  on  that  fatal  day,  when,  for  the  only  time,  this  romancer 
of  the  wars  "smelled  powder."  He  afterwards  pleaded  for 
his  party  before  the  worthy  police  magistrate,  and  showed 
great  promise  as  a  barrister.  At  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
he  was  full  of  his  fun,  made  ballads,  sang  them  through 
the  streets  in  disguise,  and  one  night  collected  thirty  shil- 
lings in  coppers. 

From  Trinity  College  Lever  went  to  Gottingen,  where 
he  found  fun  and  fighting  enough  among  the  German  stu- 


28  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

dents.  From  that  hour  he  became  a  citizen  of  the  world, 
or  at  least  of  Europe,  and,  like  the  pro])liets,  was  most  hon- 
ored when  out  of  his  own  country.  He  returned  to  Dublin 
and  took  his  degree  in  medicine  after  playing  a  famous 
practical  joke.  A  certain  medical  professor  was  wont  to 
lecture  in  bed.  One  night  he  left  town  unexpectedly. 
Lever  by  chance  came  early  to  lecture,  found  the  professor 
absent,  slipped  into  his  bed,  put  on  his  nightcap,  and  took 
the  class  himself.  On  another  day  he  was  standing  out- 
side the  Foundling  Hospital  with  a  friend,  a  small  man. 
Now  a  kind  of  stone  cradle  for  foundlings  was  built  out- 
side the  door,  and  when  a  baby  was  placed  therein  a  bell 
rang.  Lever  lifted  up  his  friend,  popped  him  into  the 
cradle,  and  had  the  joy  of  seeing  the  promising  infant 
picked  out  by  the  porter. 

It  seems  a  queer  education  for  a  man  of  letters;  but,  like 
Sir  Walter  Scott  when  revelling  in  Liddesdale,  he  "was 
making  himself  all  the  time."  He  was  collecting  myriads 
of  odd  experiences  and  treasures  of  anecdotes ;  he  was  learn- 
ing to  know  men  of  all  sorts ;  and  later,  as  a  country  doctor, 
he  had  experiences  of  mess  tables,  of  hunting,  and  of  all 
the  ways  of  his  remarkable  countrymen.  When  cholera  vis- 
ited his  district,  he  stuck  to  his  work  like  a  man  of  heart 
and  courage.  But  the  usual  tasks  of  a  country  doctor  wea- 
ried him:  he  neglected  them,  he  became  unpopular  with  the 
authorities,  he  married  his  first  love,  and  returned  to  Brus- 
sels, where  he  practised  as  a  physician.  He  had  already 
begun  his  first  notable  book,  Harry  Lorreqiier,  in  the  Uni- 
versity Magazine.  It  is  merely  a  string  of  Irish  and  other 
stories,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent — a  picture  gallery  full 
of  portraits  of  priests,  soldiers,  peasants,  and  odd  charac- 
ters. The  critics  and  authors  thought  little  of  the  merry 
medley,  but  the  public  enjoyed  it  and  defied  the  reviewers. 

It  is  not  possible  even  to  catalogue  Lever's  later  books 
here.  He  saA's  that  he  grew  fat  and  bald  and  grave;  he 
wrote  for  the  grave  and  the  bald,  not  for  tlie  hapjiier  world, 
whicli  is  young  and  curly  and  merry.  He  died  at  last,  it  is 
said,  in  his  sleep;  and  it  is  added  that  he  did  what  Harry 
Lorrequer  would  not  have  done — he  left  his  affairs  in  per- 
fect order. — Arranged  from  Essays  in  Little,  by  Andrew 
Lang. 


NARRATION"  29 


THE    BLACK    HOLE    OF    CALCUTTA 

The  fort  was  taken  after  a  feeble  resistance,  and  great 
numbers  of  the  English  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquer- 
ors. The  Nabob  seated  himself  with  regal  pomp  in  the 
principal  hall  of  the  factory,  and  ordered  Mr.  Holwell,  the 
first  in  rank  among  the  prisoners,  to  be  brought  before  him. 
His  Highness  talked  about  the  insolence  of  the  English, 
and  grumbled  at  the  smallness  of  the  treasure  which  he  had 
found;  but  promised  to  spare  their  lives,  and  retired  to 
rest. 

Then  was  committed  that  great  crime,  memorable  for  its 
singular  atrocity,  memorable  for  the  tremendous  retribu- 
tion by  which  it  was  followed.  The  English  captives  were 
left  at  the  mercy  of  the  guards,  and  the  guards  determined 
to  secure  them  for  the  night  in  the  prison  of  the  garrison, 
a  chamber  known  by  the  fearful  name  of  the  Black  Hole. 
Even  for  a  single  European  malefactor  that  dungeon 
would,  in  such  a  climate,  have  been  too  close  and  narrow. 
The  space  was  only  twenty  feet  square.  The  air-holes  were 
small  and  obstructed.  It  was  the  summer  solstice,  the  sea- 
son when  the  fierce  heat  of  Bengal  can  scarcely  be  rendered 
tolerable  to  natives  of  England  by  lofty  halls  and  by  the 
constant  waving  of  fans.  The  number  of  the  prisoners  was 
one  hundred  and  forty-six.  When  they  were  ordered  to 
enter  the  cell,  they  imagined  that  the  soldiers  were  joking; 
and,  being  in  high  spirits  on  account  of  the  promise  of  the 
Nabob  to  spare  their  lives,  they  laughed  and  jested  at  the 
absurdity  of  the  notion.  They  soon  discovered  their  mis- 
take. They  expostulated;  they  entreated;  but  in  vain. 
The  guards  threatened  to  cut  down  all  who  hesitated.  The 
captives  were  driven  into  the  cell  at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
and  the  door  was  instantly  shut  and  locked  upon  them. 

Nothing  in  history  or  fiction,  not  even  the  story  which 
Ugolino  told  in  the  sea  of  everlasting  ice,  after  he  had 
wiped  his  bloody  lips  on  the  scaljD  of  his  murderer,  ap- 
proaches the  horrors  which  were  recounted  by  the  few  sur- 
vivors of  that  night.  They  cried  for  mercy.  They  strove 
to  burst  the  door.  Holwell,  who,  even  in  that  extremity, 
retained  some  presence  of  mind,  offered  large  bribes  to  tlie 
jailers.     But  the  answer  was  that  nothing   could  be  done 


30  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

without  tlie  Nabob's  orders,  tliat  the  Nabob  was  asleep,  and 
that  he  would  be  angry  if  anybody  woke  him.  Then  the 
prisoners  went  mad  with  despair.  They  trampled  each 
other  down,  fought  for  the  pl.iees  at  the  windows,  fought 
for  tlie  pittance  of  water  with  which  the  cruel  mercy  of  the 
murderers  mocked  their  agonies,  raved,  prayed,  blasphemed, 
implored  the  guards  to  fire  among  them.  The  jailers  in 
the  meantime  held  lights  to  the  bars,  and  shouted  with 
laughter  at  the  frantic  struggles  of  their  victims.  At 
length  the  tumult  died  away  in  low  gaspings  and  moanings. 
The  day  broke.  The  Nabob  had  slept  off  his  debauch,  and 
permitted  the  door  to  be  opened.  But  it  was  some  time 
before  the  soldiers  could  make  a  lane  for  the  survivors,  by 
piling  up  on  each  side  the  heaps  of  corpses  on  which  the 
burning  climate  had  already  begun  to  do  its  loathsome 
work.  When  at  length  a  passage  was  made,  twenty-three 
ghastly  figures,  such  as  their  own  mothers  would  not  have 
known,  staggered  one  by  one  out  of  the  charnel-house.  A 
pit  was  instantly  dug.  The  dead  bodies,  a  hundred  and 
twenty-three  in  nxmiber,  were  flung  into  it  promiscuously, 
and  covered  up. — Thomas  Babington  Mac^vulay  in  Essay 
on  Clive. 

14.  Unity  in  Narration. — From  whatever  source  the 
material,  the  narrative  must  have  unity ;  that  is,  it  must 
contain  everything  necessary  for  clearness  and  interest, 
and  nothing  more.  A  common  error  is  to  forget  that 
what  is  clear  to  the  writer  is  not  clear  to  the  general 
reader,  and  thus  to  omit  details,  as  in  the  following 
example : 

CLIMBING    CHOCORUA 

After  a  rainy  week  in  camp  last  July,  we  were  tempted 
by  a  beautiful  morning  to  try  to  climb  Chocorua.  Jim  and 
I  were  willing  to  go,  and  so  was  Mr.  Williams,  but  Air. 
Carver  and  Mac  jireferred  bicycling.  Immedi.itely  after 
breakfast  we  put  up  a  Imicheon — with  a  good  supply  of 
tablets  from  Charlie's  stock — and  started  off  by  the  path 
over  the  ridge.     Of  course  we  were  so  tired  by  the  time  we 


NAIlIiATlON  31 

reached  the  spring  that  we  were  ready  to  rest  and  eat  a  little 
something.  In  the  course  of  fifteen  minutes  we  were  re- 
freshed enough  to  go  very  quickly  over  the  space  from  the 
spring  to  the  point  where  we  began  to  scramble  over  the 
rocks.  Then  we  took  the  climb  more  slowly  till  we  came 
to  the  fallen  hemlock,  just  before  the  long  stretch  of  bare 
granite. 

Were  this  a  letter  to  a  person  who  knew  all  about  the 
camp  and  the  path  to  Chocorua,  it  would  be  clear ;  but, 
written  presumably  for  the  general  reader,  it  is  obscure. 
True,  a  character  or  place  may  be  named  without  ex- 
planation, provided  the  facts  are  to  appear  in  due  time 
or  are  easily  inferred  from  the  context ;  but  in  this  story 
further  explanation  is  needed  about  the  tablets,  the  dis- 
tances, and  the  paths. 

Awkward  omissions  are  especially  frequent  in  sum- 
maries. A  character,  who  may  not  be  mentioned  till  he 
does  something  important,  then  drops  in  like  a  thunder- 
bolt from  the  blue.  For  instance,  if  Lord  Jeffrey,  in 
the  synopsis  of  Tlie  Black  Dwarf,  page  24,  had  been  as 
careless  as  many  school  pupils,  he  would  have  omitted 
all  reference  to  INIiss  Vere  in  paragraph  3.  Then  his 
reference  tD  her  in  the  following  paragraph  would  have 
been  very  puzzling,  and  his  synopsis  would  have  been 
incomplete. 

Another  common  fault  is  to  err  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion by  cumbering  the  narrative  with  superfluous  e'xpla- 
nations.  When  one  tells  a  story  one  is  likely  to  relate 
also  incidents  which  happened  about  the  same  time,  or 
in  the  same  place,  or  to  the  same  people,  although  such 
incidents  have  no  real  connection  with  the  subject.  Thus 
the  inexperienced  writer,  when  he  tires  to  correct  CUmb- 
vng  Chocorua,  page  30,  gives  a  mass  of  irrelevant  ex- 
planation : 


32  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


CLIMBING    CHOCORUA 

Last  spring  my  fatlier,  who  is  an  engineer,  took  charge  of 
the  construction  of  some  sewers  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Chi- 
cago. In  one  \mrt  of  the  work,  wlierc  the  men  were  connect- 
ing the  old  system  of  sewerage  with  the  new,  he  spent  some 
time  near  a  stagnant  pool  of  sewage  and  inhaled  the  vapor 
which  rose  from  it.  The  result  was  a  severe  attack  of  tj'phoid 
fever.  As  soon  as  he  was  well  enough  to  travel,  he  and 
my  motlier  started  for  the  Mediterranean.  I  wanted  to  go 
too,  but  they  thought  my  father  would  get  well  more 
quickly  if  I  stayed  at  home.  1  do  not  see  why  they  thought 
so.  At  any  rate  I  had  to  stay.  I  spent  the  summer  in  a 
camp  near  jNIount  Chocorua,  in  charge  of  Mr.  Williams,  the 
teacher  of  Latin  in  our  school.  Mr.  Carver,  our  teacher  of 
mathematics,  was  also  there  in  July.  There  were  ten  of 
us  boys,  Jim  Stevens,  Charlie  Sutcliffe,  Will  MacElroy, 
Will  Tudor,  Jack  Wolcott,  I^ouis  Bennett,  George  Brigham, 
Ed  Wyman,  and  Al  Chase.  Jim  Stevens  was  my  chum,  and 
we  generally  went  together.  We  got  most  of  our  fresh 
vegetables  from  a  farm  near,  but  when  we  were  short  of 
fresh  stuff,  we  ate  canned  goods,  of  which  we  had  a  large 
supply.  I  didn't  care  much  for  the  canned  meat  and  vege- 
tables, but  I  liked  the  soups  pretty  well.  I  was  specially 
fond  of  malted  milk  tablets,  of  which  we  had  a  big  "hos- 
pital" jar,  sent  us  by  Charlie  Sutcliffe's  father,  wlio  was  a 
wholesale  druggist.  Our  tent  was  heavy  canvas  stretched 
on  a  wooden  frame,  double  roofed.  So  much  for  our  sit- 
uation. 

The  first  week  we  were  in  camp  was  so  rainy  that  we 
could  do  nothing  but  fish  and  loaf  round  in  the  tent.  Final- 
ly on  a  beautiful  day  several  of  us  decided  to  try  to  climb 
Chocorua. 

Here  are  various  facts,  the  attack  of  fever,  the  trip  to 
Europe,  the  diet  in  camp,  the  construction  of  the  tent,  all 
recalled  by  the  thought  of  climbing  Chocorua ;  yet  most 
of  them,  however  interesting  in  themselves,  liave  not  the 
least  bearing  on  the  subject.  This  introduction,  then, 
like  the   introductions  of  nine-tenths  of  the  narratives 


NARRATION  33 

handed  in  as  school  themes,  contains  much  unnecessary 
matter. 

This  next  narrative  lacks  unity  because  there  is  too 
much  introduction : 

AN    ACCIDENT 

This  afternoon  I  went  out  in  the  coimtry  to  see  my 
grandparents.  After  I  got  out  there  I  decided  to  take  a 
short  drive,  and  I  told  the  man  at  the  barn  to  hitch  up  the 
pair  for  me.  I  drove  down  to  East  Greenwich,  which  is 
about  eight  miles  from  Centreville.  While  coming  home 
I  was  obliged  to  follow  the  railroad  for  a  mile  or  two. 
When  I  had  gone  about  half  a  mile  I  heard  a  terrible  whis- 
tling ahead  of  me.  On  coming  near  to  where  the  sound 
came  from,  I  discovered  that  an  express  train  had  run  into 
the  rear  end  of  a  freight  train.  Fortunately  no  one  was 
seriously  hurt,  although  I  heard  one  man  say  that  he  never 
got  shaken  up  so  badly  in  his  life  before.  The  engine  of 
the  express  train  was  somewhat  disabled,  as  the  cow-catcher 
was  broken  and  the  head -light  and  smoke-stack  were 
knocked  off.  No  one  seemed  to  know  the  cause  of  the 
accident. 

The  story  might  better  begin  as  follows : 

This  afternoon,  while  driving  near  Centreville,  I  had  to 
follow  the  railroad  for  a  mile  or  two.  When  I  had  gone 
about  half  a  mile,  etc. 

The  next  tale  opens  with  a  trite  and  useless  remark: 

A  FOX  HUNT 

Fox  hunting  is  one  of  the  most  exciting  and  enjoyable 
sports  that  a  young  man  can  indulge  in. 

One  morning  last  winter,  about  three  o'clock,  a  friend  and 
I  started  from  our  home  and  drove  about  eight  miles  to  a 
place  called  Buck  Hill.  We  left  our  horse  at  a  farmhouse, 
and  set  out  for  a  valley  which  had  been  pointed  out  as  a 
place  where  we  should  probably  find  a  fox.     .     . 

Most  of  the  first  half  of  the  next  example  is  irrele- 
vant :     . 


34  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

A   GREAT   CRASH 

It  was  my  pleasure  at  the  vacation  time  to  visit  my  home 
in  Oxford,  New  York.  The  place  is  a  small  town  near  the 
central  part  of  the  state,  and,  because  of  the  great  water 
supply  and  good  railroad  facilities,  many  manufactories  are 
found  in  the  place.  Among  the  larger  establishments  is  a 
flouring  mill  wliich  is  built  directly  over  the  river.  As  I 
was  passing  this  building  one  afternoon  while  at  home,  I 
was  startled  by  a  great  crasli,  but  soon  forgot  about  the 
incident.  In  a  few  minutes  I  learned  that  the  entire  inside 
of  the  building  had  fallen  into  the  river,  carrying  with  it 
eight  thousand  bushels  of  grain.  The  building  was  well 
insured;  consequently  the  loss  amounted  to  very  little. 

Each  of  the  next  two  themes  ends  with  a  sentence  that 
adds  nothing  to  the  interest  and  had  better  be  omitted. 
Unless  a  story  is  regarded  as  merely  part  of  an  exposition 
or  argument,  the  reader  may  be  trusted  to  draw  the  nec- 
essary moral. 

MY   NEW  OVERCOAT 

My  new  overcoat  was  a  work  of  art,  and  it  looked  so 
trim  and  neat  that  I  decided  to  take  a  walk  and  show  people 
how  fortunate  I  had  been.  Before  leaving  the  building, 
I  went  by  chance  into  a  friend's  room.  It  was  crowded  with 
fellows,  and  thc}'^  became  so  entluisiastic  about  the  coat 
and  liauled  me  around  in  such  a  way  that  I  grew  suspicious 
and  left.  As  I  walked  doAvn  tlie  hill  I  noticed  that  I  was 
attracting  considerable  attention,  but  since  I  did  not  wish 
to  appear  self-conscious,  I  walked  along  as  if  I  liad  dozens 
of  new  coats.  Soon  there  was  a  crowd  of  small  boys  at 
my  heels.  This  attention  was  too  much.  I  turned  around 
quickly  and  started  for  college.  As  I  did  so  a  card  fell 
from  under  my  collar.  I  picked  it  up  and  read  the  fol- 
lowing: 


SIMl'LE    BUT    NEAT 


I  have  often  thought  since  that  I  was  a  fair  type  of  the 
average  man  and  woman,  wlio  fail  to  see  themselves  as 
others  see  them. 


NARRATION"  35 


AROUND    THE    CONGRESS    GEYSER 

"Oh,  what  a  beautiful  pool !"  said  a  young  woman  stand- 
ing near  me.  "Just  see  what  a  lovely  emerald  tint  the 
water  has.  This  is  positively  the  loveliest  spring  we  have 
seen  yet.     What  do  they  call  it?" 

Somebody  informed  her  that  it  was  the  Congress  Geyser. 

"Why  doesn't  it  spout  like  the  others?  And  why  do  they 
call  it  the  Congress?" 

But  no  one  volunteered  to  answer  this  time,  and  the 
young  woman  moved  away. 

Now  my  natural  curiosity  had  been  aroused  by  the  fair 
tourist's  questions,  and  I  determined  to  investigate  for 
myself. 

"Uncle,"  said  I  to  an  old  negro  who  was  mending  the 
road  nearby,  "why  do  they  call  this  geyser  the  Congress?" 

The  old  fellow  straightened  up  and  gave  his  trousers  a 
hitch : 

"I  doesn't  know,  boss,  'less  it's  'caze  it  doan'  do 
nothin'." 

The  answer  struck  me  as  very  pertinent,  and  I  wished 
that  some  of  our  congressmen  might  hear  it. 

Another  striking  example  of  an  introduction  over- 
loaded with  material  is  found  in  the  following  story. 
The  passages  in  brackets  add  nothing  and  therefore 
destroy  the  unity. 

OUR    FIRST    APPEARANCE 

It  was  three  years  ago  that  the  Century  Banjo,  Mandolin, 
and  Guitar  Club  was  organized.  The  name  may  seem  a 
trifle  imposing  for  a  club  of  but  four  members;  but  we  of 
the  club  decided  at  the  start  that  nothing  could  be  too 
good  for  us,  and,  as  this  name  had  a  lofty  tone,  we  adopted 
it.  [Of  course  there  were  objections  to  the  name  "Cent- 
ury"; but  as  we  had  already  spent  more  time  in  choosing 
a  name  than  in  practising,  discussion  on  the  subject  was 
at  a  low  ebb.  At  first  we  had  all  agreed  upon  "Imperial" 
as  an  appellation  of  suitable  dignity,  but  we  soon  learned 
that  there  was   already  a  club  of  that  name.      The  chief 


36  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

objection  to  the  name  "Century"  was  made  by  our  second 
ban  joist,  wlio,  being  an  amateur  printer,  had  agreed  to  get 
up  some  announcements.  He  had  already  set  up  his  type 
and  was  strongly  averse  to  changing  it.  After  a  little  re- 
flection, however,  he  concluded  that  the  changes  could  be 
made  easily,  as  "Century"  would  take  up  about  the  same 
space  as  "Imperial";  so  he  came  over  to  the  popular  side 
of  the  question.] 

At  this  time  I  was  attending  the  high  school.  I  had 
been  playing  the  banjo  and  the  mandolin  for  about  a  j^ear, 
and  had  succeeded  in  interesting  a  friend  named  Valentine 
in  the  instruments.  [My  friend's  tastes,  however,  differed 
somewhat  from  my  own.  He  was  an  athlete  and  a  ladies' 
man;  and,  in  addition  to  performing  the  trying  duties  oc- 
casioned by  such  positions,  he  was  also  a  student  at  the 
school.  Consequently  he  was  so  busy  that  he  would  prob- 
ably never  have  learned  to  play  the  banjo,  had  he  not 
wrenched  his  knee  in  a  game  of  football  and  been  confined 
to  the  house  for  several  weeks.  During  that  time  he  ac- 
quired some  skill  with  the  banjo,  and  we  occasionally  prac- 
tised duets.]  Another  friend,  Emerson,  had  also  been 
learning  the  banjo,  and  it  was  he  who  first  proposed  that  we 
form  a  club.  A  congenial  spirit  named  Blanchard,  who 
played  the  guitar,  was  unanimously  chosen  the  fourth  mem- 
ber. Thus  having  been  duly  born  and  named,  our  club  was 
ready  to  start  in  life. 

[How  we  i^ractised !  There  is  something  very  fascinat- 
ing in  playing  with  a  club,  and  besides  we  were  all  in  ear- 
nest. I  occasionally  sacrificed  a  Greek  lesson,  and  I  know 
that,  at  least  for  the  first  two  weeks,  Valentine  was  less  at- 
tentive than  usual  to  the  ladies.  After  a  while,  however, 
our  ladies'  man  began  to  have  engagements  which  conflicted 
with  the  club's  practice  hours,  and  a  rain  storm  would  keep 
our  guitar  player  from  appearing  at  the  appointed  time; 
but  all  this  hapjiencd  after  the  club  was  fairly  on  its  feet.] 
Since  we  thought  it  best  to  learn  easy  pieces  at  first,  we 
began  with  Louisiana  Hoc  Dotv)i  and  a  galop  entitled  On 
the  Mill  Dam.  [Our  rehearsals  would  have  been  rather 
amusing  to  an  outsider.  In  a  passage  where  the  composer 
had  neglected  to  put  expression  marks,  we  naturally  dif- 
fered as  to  how  the  passage  should  be  played ;  and  since 
there  were   four  members  in  the  club,  there  were  usually 


NARRATION"  37 

four  different  opinions.  In  regard  to  some  of  the  passages 
that  were   marked  opinions   often   differed.] 

We  had  hardly  learned  these  two  pieces  when  we  got  an 
engagement.  We  had  become  known  through  the  columns 
of  a  local  paper,  whose  enterprising  editor  had  announced, 
under  the  head  of  "Society  Notes,"  that  the  Century  Banjo, 
Mandolin,  and  Guitar  Club  had  been  formed  and  was  open 
to  engagements.  The  notice  was  not  entirely  satisfactory, 
as  Valentine's  name  was  misspelled,  but  it  caught  the  eye 
of  a  member  of  the  entertainment  committee  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church.  The  members  of  the  church  were  to  give 
a  free  entertainment  and  social,  and  the  committee  wanted 
volunteer  talent.  Would  our  club  not  furnish  two  numbers 
for  the  programme.^  Taking  into  consideration  a  possible 
encore  and  the  extent  of  our  repertory,  we  felt  obliged  to 
reply  that,  as  it  would  be  our  first  appearance  we  hardly 
felt  like  playing  more  than  once.  "We  can't  play  twice," 
said  Emerson  when  we  were  talking  the  matter  over. 
"We're  sure  to  get  an  encore.  I  never  went  to  a  free  show 
in  my  life  but  the  people  encored  everything." 

We  did  some  hard  practising  in  preparation  for  the  event. 
Finally  the  evening  came.  We  were  not  to  reach  the  church 
until  eight  o'clock,  but  at  seven  we  met  at  Emerson's  house 
to  tune  our  instruments  and  play  the  pieces  over  for  the 
last  time.  What  a  job  we  had  tuning  up !  I  suppose  we  all 
were  nervous.  At  length  we  succeeded  in  getting  our  in- 
struments in  perfect  tune,  played  our  pieces  through,  and, 
each  with  a  pink  in  his  buttonhole,  set  out  for  the  church. 

On  arriving,  we  were  shown  into  an  anteroom  which  was 
reserved  for  the  performers,  and,  sitting  together  in  one 
corner,  nervously  holding  our  instruments,  we  waited  our 
turn  to  appear.  Each  of  us  suddenly  thought  of  some  cau- 
tion which  he  felt  in  duty  bound  to  whisper  to  his  neighbor, 
and  each  was  seized  with  a  desperate  longing  to  peep 
throught  the  door  at  the  audience.  The  entertainment  began 
with  the  usual  piano  solo,  which  was  followed  by  a  vocal 
duet  and  a  reading.  We  were  down  for  the  next  number. 
Suddenly  an  excited  whisper  came  from  Blanchard,  who, 
with  his  ear  close  to  the  fingerboard  of  his  guitar,  had  for 
several  minutes  been  softly  picking  the  strings  to  see  if 
they  were  in  tune.  "My  E's  gone  down,  fellows!  Some- 
body give  me  an  E." 


215183 


38  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

"We  can't  tune  up  now,"  replied  Emerson,  who  had 
taken  out  his  handkerchief  and  was  wiping  the  perspiration 
from  his  liands.  "The  people  would  hear  us.  Wait  till  the 
reader  gets  through." 

Under  cover  of  the  applause  which  was  given  the  reader 
Blanchard  managed  to  get  his  guitar  in  tune  again,  and 
then  we  waited  in  glum  silence  while  the  reader  responded 
to  the  encore.  She  recited  a  humorous  little  piece,  which 
we  could  plainly  hear  through  the  open  door;  but  none  of 
us  smiled. 

The  reader  made  her  final  bow;  we  heard  some  one  an- 
nouncing that  the  Century  Banjo,  Mandolin,  and  Guitar 
Club  would  make  its  first  appearance;  and  then  we  filed  out 
on  the  platform.  After  the  welcoming  applause  we  began 
to  play  the  galop.  Our  playing  really  surprised  me;  the 
piece  had  never  sounded  better.  I  do  not  know  how  it 
was  with  the  other  fellows,  but  after  we  had  played  through 
the  first  strain  my  nervousness  left  me.  When  we  finished, 
the  applause  was  loud  and  prolonged.  We  went  upon  the 
platform  again  and  began  the  Iloe  Down.  We  had  reached 
the  middle  of  the  second  strain  when  I  heard  a  sharp  snap, 
and  looking  up  saw  that  Emerson's  first  string  had  broken. 
The  agreement  was  that  in  case  a  string  broke,  we  should 
keep  on  playing  until  I  gave  the  signal  to  stop  by  nodding 
my  heado  My  plan  was  to  finish  the  piece  at  the  end  of 
the  strain,  and  I  looked  across  to  give  the  signal.  But 
Blanchard  was  playing  away  with  his  ej'es  firmly  fixed  on 
the  fingerboard  of  his  guitar,  and  never  once  did  he  glance 
up.  So  we  played  the  "piece  through  with  Emerson  strug- 
gling along  heroically,  and  at  length  retired  amid  more 
applause. 

The  Century  Club  had  made  its  first  appearance.  Al- 
though well  satisfied  with  our  performance,  we  did  not  stay 
after  the  entertainment  to  be  lionized  or  to  partake  of  the 
ice  cream,  but  we  packed  up  our  instruments  and  made  for 
home. 

"There's  one  thing  certain,"  said  Valentine,  as  he  was  try- 
ing to  identify  his  hat,  "we  got  a  bigger  encore  than  any 
of  the  rest  of  them." 

15  Order  in  Narration. — According  to  the  second 
principle,  that  of  order,  tlie  facts  must  be  presented  in 


NARRATION" 


39 


proper  sequence.  Usually  incidents  should  be  related  in 
the  order  of  happening.  A  story  cannot  be  clear  if  the 
writer  drag  in  out  of  place  an  omitted  fact,  with  the 
tardy  apolog}^,  "I  forgot  to  mention  earlier." 

Sometimes  it  is  well  to  abandon  the  strict  chronological 
order.  The  beginning,  for  instance,  should  be  as  inter- 
esting as  possible,  so  as  to  attract  the  reader  at  once.  In 
order  to  avoid  a  tedious  introduction,  a  writer  may  start 
with  a  striking  incident  or  phrase,  which  does  not  really 
occur  at  the  beginning  of  the  action,  and  then  he  may  go 
back  to  the  early  part  of  the  story.  This  method  is  illus- 
trated in  the  two  versions  of  the  following  story : 


A    RAPID    SLIDE 


We  had  been  toiling  up 
hill  with  our  bicycles  for  half 
an  hour.  At  last  we  reached 
the  crest  and  caught  sight  of 
a  long  descent.  "Now  for  a 
coast!"  cried  my  companion, 
and  at  the  word  we  both 
sailed  away.  I  soon  saw  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  a  short 
turn  in  the  road,  so  short  it 
seemed  like  the  bend  of  a 
fish-hook.  At  the  same  time 
my  friend  saw  it  and  tried  in 
vain  to  check  the  speed  of  his 
wheel.  Before  either  of  us 
could  speak  we  were  at  the 
bottom.  Knowing  that  a 
turn  meant  sure  ruin,  I 
turned  neither  to  the  right 
nor  to  the  left,  but  plunged 
off  the  embankment  into  the 
swamp  below.  Crawling  out 
of  the  miry  water,  I  hastened 


"Now  for  a  coast!"  cried 
my  companion.  We  had  been 
toiling  up  hill  with  our  bicy- 
cles for  half  an  hour.  At 
last,  as  we  reached  the  crest 
and  caught  sight  of  the  long 
descent,  my  friend  shouted 
the  signal,  and  we  both  sailed 
away;  etc. 


40  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

to  find  out  what  had  become 
of  my  companion.  There  he 
lay  in  the  dust,  his  coat  torn, 
an  ugly  cut  on  his  arm,  and 
a  black  bruise  under  the  eye. 
We  spent  an  hour  going  the 
next  half  mile  to  a  house, 
where  we  had  a  chance  to 
wash  and  to  meditate. 

In  Climbing  Chocorua,  page  32,  An  Accident,  33,  and 
A  Fox  Hunt,  33,  the  violations  of  unitj^  are  also  viola- 
tions of  the  principle  of  order,  because  in  each  case  the 
beginning  is  uninteresting  and  unimportant.  On  the 
other  hand.  Around  the  Congress  Geyser,  35,  begins 
with  something  which  immediately  arrests  attention,  and 
at  least  in  that  respect  the  material  is  well  ordered. 

Since  the  end  is  the  last  thing  to  catch  the  reader's 
eye  and  linger  in  his  memory,  the  end  should  contain  the 
point  of  the  story.  The  two  themes.  My  New  Overcoat, 
page  34,  and  Around  the  Congress  Geyser,  therefore 
violate  the  principles  of  order  by  ending  with  pointless 
remarks.  In  each  case  the  omission  of  the  last  sentence 
would  improve  both  the  unity  and  the  order. 

A  special  order  is  generally  observed  in  "news 
stories,"  tliat  is,  stories  that  are  written  for  newspapers. 
The  material  should  be  so  arranged  that  a  busy  man  can 
get  the  important  facts  in  the  first  sentence  or  two,  with- 
out wading  tlirough  the  whole  article.  It  should  also  be 
so  arranged  that  in  "making  up"  a  page  of  the  news- 
paper one  or  more  paragraphs  can  be  cut  out  quickly 
without  destroying  the  continuity,  in  case  the  story  is  too 
long  to  fit.  Thus  a  news  story  summarizes  the  chief 
points  in  the  first  sentences,  and  then  presents  the  de- 


NAKRATION  41 

tails — a  paragraph  to  each  phase  of  the  subject.     The 
following  specimen  illustrates  the  method: 


A    FATAL    FIRE 

TWO    PERSONS    KILLED    AND    FIVE    INJURED    IN    A    BLAZE    IN    A 
TENEMENT    HOUSE 

Two  persons  were  killed  and  five  injured  in  a  fire  this 
morning  in  the  six-story  tenement  house  at  No.  127  Henry 
Street.     The  damage  is  estimated  at  $8,000. 

The  dead  are: 
Sarah  Lazarus,  aged  twenty-seven,  immarried. 
Harris  Rothenstein,  aged  eighty-four,  an  invalid. 

The  injured  are: 
Mrs.   Grune   Appelbaum,  aged  fifty,  severely  burned   on 

hands  and  face ;  in  Gouverneur  Hospital. 
Mrs.  Bella  Greenberg,  aged  thirty-five,  badly  bruised  by 

jumping    from    second-floor    window;    in    a    neighbor's 

house. 
Mrs.    Taubie   Greenfeldt,   aged   twenty-eight,   both   legs 

broken  by  jumping  from  third-floor  window;  in  Gouver- 
neur Hospital. 
James  Fallon,  aged  forty-two,  engineer  of  Company  No. 

17,   arms   bruised   by    attempting  to   catch   Mrs.   Green- 

feldt. 
Morris    Rosen,    aged    fifty,    unmarried,    face    and    hands 

burned;  attended  by  ambulance  surgeon,  not  in  hospital. 

The  fire  started,  no  one  knows  how,  about  eight  o'clock, 
in  a  heap  of  rubbish  near  the  engine  in  the  basement.  It 
did  not  touch  the  first,  second,  or  third  floor,  but  darted  up 
the  light  shaft,  through  the  windows  in  the  three  upper 
floors,  which  were  gutted.  The  blaze  was  discovered  by 
Jacob  Doust,  one  of  several  painters  who  were  busy  in  the 
various  apartments,  preparing  them  for  the  feast  of  the 
Passover.  Doust  was  on  his  way  to  the  engine-room  for 
a  fresh  supply  of  paint,  when  he  saw  the  flames  and  shouted 
"Fire!"  Jacob  Greenfeldt,  the  janitor,  heard  him, 
grabbed  a  pail,  filled  it  with  water  and  rushed  to  the  cellar 
stairway.     When  he  opened  the  door  he  was  greeted  by  a 


42  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

burst  of  flame  that  singed  his  beard  and  hair.  Tossing  the 
pail  into  the  fire,  he  slammed  the  door  and  rushed  back 
to  alarm  the  residents  of  the  house  and  the  police.  In  a 
few  minutes  the  flames  had  been  drawn  up  the  light  shaft 
to  the  very  top  of  the  building. 

When  tlie  fire  had  been  under  way  for  a  minute  or  two 
there  was  a  panic,  in  which  several  persons  besides  those 
whose  names  are  in  the  list  above  were  more  or  less  injured. 
Many  were  bruised  by  being  crowded  or  knocked  down  in 
the  rush  for  safety.  On  the  fire-escapes  people  crowded 
about  the  ladder-holes,  and  at  one  point  they  jammed  into 
a  mass  in  their  fright  and  prevented  anybody  from  climb- 
ing down  the  ladder.  The  policemen  and  firemen,  some  of 
whom  were  on  the  spot  almost  immediately  after  Doust 
yelled  "Fire!"  helped  rescue  the  tenants;  and  in  several 
instances  they  risked  their  own  lives  in  order  to  get  to 
floors  where  they  believed  women  and  children  to  be. 
Firemen  had  their  uniforms  cut  by  falling  glass,  and  their 
hands  and  faces  blistered  by  heat. 

As  soon  as  Mrs.  Greenfeldt,  wife  of  the  janitor,  knew 
there  was  a  fire,  she  remembered  that  old  Mr.  Rothenstein, 
the  man  who  was  killed,  was  an  invalid,  and  would  be  un- 
able to  help  himself.  She  accordingly  ran  upstairs  to  the 
fifth  floor,  where  the  Rothensteins  lived.  Finding  their 
rooms  empty,  she  turned  to  go  back  through  the  thick 
smoke.  With  difliculty  she  made  her  way  to  the  third  floor, 
but  she  dared  go  no  farther.  She  then  crawled  to  the  rear 
windows,  and  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  firemen  in  the 
yard  below,  she  jumped. 

James  Fallon,  the  engineer  of  Company  No.  17,  braced 
himself  to  catch  her;  but,  as  Mrs.  Greenfeldt  is  a  large 
woman,  he  was  knocked  heavily  to  the  pavement.  Though 
his  effort  to  check  her  fall  probably  saved  her  life,  she  had 
both  legs  broken.  Fallon's  arms  were  nearly  wrenched  out 
of  their  sockets  and  he  was  much  bruised,  but  after  resting 
a  little  while  he  went  on  with  his  work. 

Mrs.  Greenfeldt,  in  spite  of  the  great  pain  she  was  suf- 
fering, repeatedly  told  the  firemen  of  the  danger  of  the 
sick  Mr.  Rothenstein.  They  made  heroic  efforts  to  get  to 
the  third  floor,  where  someone  said  the  old  man  had  been 
carried,  but  they  were  always  driven  back  by  the  dense 
smoke. 


NAKEATION  43 

The  only  member  of  the  Rothenstein  family  besides  the 
old  man,  who  was  in  the  house  at  the  time  was  a  little  four- 
teen-year-old niece,  named  Rosie.  After  having  escaped 
by  way  of  the  roof,  she  told  the  following  story  of  her  at- 
tempt to  rescue  her  uncle: 

"Uncle  called  out  to  me  to  save  him,  and  as  I  knew  he 
couldn't  walk,  I  tried  to  get  him  to  the  roof,  where  the 
other  people  were  going.  I  pulled  him  out  in  the  hall, 
which  was  full  of  smoke,  and  managed  to  get  him  to  the 
top  floor.  He  couldn't  climb  the  scuttle  stairs,  and  I  asked 
some  other  people  to  help  me  carry  him  up.  No  one  took 
any  notice  of  me,  and  I  was  choking  from  the  smoke.  So 
I  had  to  leave  him." 

The  old  man's  body  was  found,  as  described  by  the  girl, 
at  the  foot  of  the  scuttle  steps. 

While  the  firemen  were  removing  some  rubbish  from  one 
of  the  stairways,  in  order  to  carry  up  a  line  of  hose,  they 
found  another  body.  It  was  identified  as  that  of  Sarah 
Lazarus,  who  lived  on  the  third  floor. 

At  one  time  there  was  report  of  a  third  death.  After 
the  fire  was  over  a  fireman  leaned  from  a  window  on  the 
top  floor  and  shouted  that  he  had  come  upon  another  body. 
Later  he  discovered  that  the  body  was  only  a  pile  of  bed- 
clothing  that  looked  like  the  form  of  a  man. 

Rebecca  Rabinowitz,  her  daugliter  Leah,  and  her  four- 
teen-months-old  baby  Abraham,  occupied  a  flat  on  the 
fourth  floor.  She  became  panic-stricken  and  locked  her- 
self and  her  children  into  a  room.  Patrolman  Carey,  of  the 
Madison  Street  Station,  was  on  his  way  through  the  build- 
ing, in  search  of  any  tenants  who  might  have  been  cut  off 
by  smoke  and  flame.  Hearing  Mrs.  Rabinowitz's  cries  for 
help,  he  broke  down  the  door  of  the  room,  and  conveyed 
the  woman  and  her  children  to  a  place  of  safety. 

One  man  was  about  to  throw  a  two-year-old  baby  from  a 
window  on  the  fourth  floor,  when  a  shout  from  the  firemen 
in  the  street  made  him  hesitate.  He  waited  till  a  ladder 
could  be  run  up  to  the  window. 

Hundreds  of  children  were  in  the  crowd  of  spectators. 
They  were  pupils  at  Public  School  No.  2,  which  is  directly 
opposite  the  tenement;  but  none  of  them  was  allowed  to 
enter  the  school  till  the  fire  was  out. 


44  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

Tlie  excellence  of  this  story,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
a  newspaper,  is  that  the  news  is  condensed  into  the  first 
few  lines,  and  the  whole  can  be  almost  instantly  fitted 
into  smaller  space.  Any  or  all  of  the  last  six  para- 
graphs may  be  omitted  without  great  loss,  though  the 
one  about  Sarah  Lazarus  and  the  one  about  Mrs.  Rabino- 
witz  are  the  most  important.  The  first  paragi-aph  after 
tiie  list  nia^'  be  left  out,  and  the  second  is  even  less  nec- 
essary. The  three  paragraphs  about  Mrs.  Greenfeldt 
may  be  cut  out ;  but  if  there  be  room  for  the  first  two 
of  them,  the  tliird  may  be  dropped.  The  most  interest- 
ing paragraphs  are  those  about  Rosie  Rothenstein  and 
her  uncle.  If  space  be  limited  the  story  may  be  re- 
duced to  the  introduction,  the  lists,  and  these  two  para- 
graphs. Even  these  two  may  be  left  out,  and  indeed 
ever3^thing  except  the  first  three  lines. 

Order  is  impossible  without  a  plan.  Though  the  plan 
may  be  worked  out  in  the  head  and  never  written  down, 
it  is  none  the  less  a  plan.  Generally,  however,  the  pro- 
cess of  writing  it  out  insures  a  more  careful  study  of 
material.  Here  is  a  specimen  plan  of  Charles  Lever's 
Early  Career,  page  27,  with  a  heading  for  each  of  the 
main  parts: 

1.  Boyhood. 

2.  Travel  and  professional  studies. 

3.  Preioaration  for  writing  and  early  authorship. 

4.  Closing  days. 

The  plan  may  be  elaborated  by  introducing  sub-heads 
under  each  main  head.    For  example : 

1.  Boyhood. 

a.  Parentage. 

b.  School  davs. 


NARRATION  45 

i.   Flogged  for  disorder, 
ii.   Setting  up  as  a  dandy, 
iii.   In  love. 

iv.   Fight  with  boys  of  another  school. 
c.   College  days. 

16.  Proportion  in  Narration. — The  principle  of  pro- 
portion demands  for  each  part  space  according  to  its 
interest  and  importance.  For  example,  in  The  Story 
of  My  Life,  16,  the  chief  interest  is  in  the  theatricals 
and  the  newspaper  work,  and  the  latter,  as  the  more 
important,  is  given  more  space.  The  following  tale, 
which  in  st^de  and  structure  is  nearly  everything  it 
should  not  be,  lacks  proportion  because  it  dwells  too  long 
on  the  adventure  with  the  bushrangers  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  Mud  Creek  Camp — it  is  supposed  to  tell  how 
two  young  men  grew  rich— and  too  little  on  the  process 
of  gi'owing  rich. 

HOW  TWO    YOUNG   MEN    GOT   RICH 

It  was  about  ten  o'clock  one  morning  when  two  young 
fellows  walked  into  the  Eagle  Hotel  of  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia, and  inquired  when  the  next  stage  left  for  the  mining 
district.  One  of  them  was  a  good-looking  young  man 
named  Ned  Hunter,  about  twenty-two  years  of  age,  six  feet 
tall,  broad-shouldered,  and  with  a  pair .  of  long  muscular 
arms;  while  the  other  was  John  Woods,  a  medium-sized 
man,  about  five  feet  eight  inches  tall,  with  black  hair  and 
a  good,  strong  constitution.  They  were  told  that  the  next 
stage  would  leave  in  two  days,  so  they  began  to  buy  their 
provisions,  guns,  pistols,  cartridges,  tents,  cooking  imple- 
ments, blankets,  etc.,  which  they  would  use  while  mining. 

Early  the  second  morning  the  stage  left  for  Mud  Creek 
Camp,  with  these  two  adventurers  and  three  other  men  be- 
sides the  driver,  whose  name  was  Fred  Stoltz,  a  very  jolly 
man.  They  had  been  on  the  road  for  three  days  without 
anything  of  imjjortance  happening,  but  that  same  night  all 
were  awakened  by  a  loud  yelp  from  the  watch-dog.     Every- 


46  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

one  wondered  what  had  caused  the  dog  to  bark,  but  they 
did  not  have  to  wait  verj'^  long,  for  soon  a  shot  came  whiz- 
zing over  their  heads.  Tlie  baggage  was  thrown  out  of 
the  stage  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  formed  into  a  sort  of 
breastwork  which  was  guarded  by  Ned  and  the  three  men, 
while  Fred  and  John  went  out  to  reconnoitre.  They  got 
directly  back  of  their  would-be  assassins  and  saw  seven 
bushrangers  holding  a  consultation  in  a  little  thicket.  Fred 
told  John  to  get  his  pistol  out,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  a  hand- 
to-hand  fight,  and  then  walked  to  within  twenty  feet  of  the 
band.  At  a  signal  both  fired.  Crack!  crack !  went  their 
rifles,  and  two  men  gave  a  cry  and  leaped  into  the  air  stone 
dead.  Before  the  others  had  time  to  get  over  the  shock, 
the  report  of  their  pistols  sounded,  with  a  similar  effect. 
The  other  three  men  ran  for  their  lives.  Soon  they  reached 
Mud  Creek  Camp. 

The  town  consisted  of  one  store  and  three  saloons.  The 
store  was  about  fourteen  by  twenty  feet,  and  was  noth- 
ing more  than  a  crate  covered  with  canvas.  The  top  was 
made  of  boards  of  almost  anj*^  length,  and  covered  with 
grass,  leaves,  etc.,  with  sticks  to  hold  them  down.  They 
sold  nearly  all  of  the  very  necessary  articles  which  miners 
need.  The  saloons  were  much  the  same  in  structure,  only 
a  little  larger,  and  contained  a  bar,  partly  worn  smooth 
from  wear,  a  few  tables,  some  chairs,  bottles,  a  couple  of 
whiskey  barrels,  and  a  few  games  of  chance  for  their 
furniture. 

Next  morning  Ned  and  John  were  up  bright  and  early, 
ate  breakfast,  and  were  ready  for  work.  They  started 
down  the  stream  to  try  their  luck  at  wasliing  gold  from  the 
stream.  Their  luck  was  pretty  fair  that  day,  and  averaged 
so  for  about  a  month,  when  a  down-hearted  miner  wanted 
them  to  buy  his  mine,  as  he  was  tired  of  trying  to  work  it. 
A  few  days  after,  Ned  paid  him  one  thousand  dollars  for 
his  mine,  and  the  two  3'oung  miners  began  to  dig  on  their 
own  property.  Both  toiled  diligently  for  about  two  months 
with  but  little  gain,  until  one  day  Ned's  pick  struck  some- 
thing hard.  He  worked  nervously  and  his  head  began  to 
swim,  when  suddenly  he  cried,  "A  nugget!  a  nugget!" 
John  heard  the  cry,  so  came  up,  and  tlie  two  loosened  the 
earth  from  around  it  and  pulled  it  out  of  the  dirt.  It  was 
a  very  hard  job  for  them  to  do,  as  the  nugget  weighed  about 


NAERATION"  47 

seventy-five  pounds.      Both  stopped  digging  for  gold  and 
began  to  make  a  cave  to  put  all  their  gold  into. 

The  next  day  tliey  moved  their  camp  over  to  the  entrance 
of  the  mine^  so  tliey  might  be  able  to  guard  their  property 
and  treasure.  Tliey  found  several  small  chunks  of  gold 
averaging  from  one  ounce  to  ten  pounds,  but  never  another 
to  compare  with  the  first.  After  a  year's  digging  they  had 
nearly  sixty  thousand  dollars  in  nuggets  and  gold  dust,  so 
they  thought  about  going  home.  They  disposed  of  their 
mine  at  a  very  good  jjrofit,  and  were  escorted  by  six  men 
to  their  homes,  with  twenty-eight  thousand  dollars  apiece. 

The  principle  of  proportion  is  often  neglected  in  sum- 
maries. A  pupil  will  work  carefully  through  the  first 
quarter  of  a  book,  and  then  hastily  crowd  all  the  last 
three  quarters  into  a  few  sentences,  will  admit  superflu- 
ous matter  at  the  beginning  and  leave  out  necessary  mat- 
ter toward  the  end.  The  proper  way  is  to  divide  the  book 
into  equal  sections  and  assign  to  each  about  the  same 
number  of  words  in  the  summary.  If  Goldsmith's  Vicar 
of  Wakefield  contains  two  hundred  pages,  and  the  sum- 
mary is  to  be  one  thousand  words  long,  there  should  be 
some  two  hundred  words  for  each  forty  pages. 

17.  Clearness  in  Narration.^ — The  observance  of  the 
three  principles,  unity,  order,  and  proportion,  will  do 
much  to  make  a  story  both  clear  and  interesting.  For 
securing  clearness,  however,  there  are  a  few  further  sug- 
gestions. The  first  is  that  the  incidents  should  be  few 
and  free  from  complexity.  In  this  respect  the  exam.ples 
on  pages  15  to  20  are  models.  The  characters,  too, 
should  be  few,  restricted,  if  possible,  to  the  two  or  three 
who  take  a  leading  part. 

There  should  generally  be  some  description  of  place 
or  situation,  but  as  to  the  amount  there  can  be  no  hard 
and  fast  rule.     A  good  example  is  the  first  few  sentences 


48  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

descriptive  of  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  If  consid- 
erable description  be  needed,  it  may  sometimes  be  offered 
a  little  at  a  time  as  the  story  progresses.  In  the  follow- 
ing selection,  the  beginning  of  The  Undertakers,  in  Kip- 
ling's Second  Jungle  Book,  there  is  no  long  description, 
but  first  a  bit  of  story,  then  of  description,  and  then  of 
story  again: 

"Respect  the  aged!" 

It  was  a  thick  voice — a  muddy  voice  that  would  have  made 
you  shudder — a  voice  like  something  soft  breaking  in  two. 
There  was  a  quaver  in  it,  a  croak,  and  a  whine. 

"Respect  the  aged!  O  Companions  of  the  River — re- 
spect the  aged !" 

Nothing  could  be  seen  on  the  broad  reach  of  the  river 
except  a  little  fleet  of  square-sailed,  wooden-pinned  barges, 
loaded  with  building-stone,  that  had  just  come  under  the 
railway  bridge  and  were  driving  down-stream.  They  put 
their  clumsy  helms  over  to  avoid  the  sand-bar  made  by  the 
scour  of  the  bridge-piers,  and  as  they  passed,  three  abreast, 
the  horrible  voice  began  again: 

"O  Brahmins  of  the  River — respect  the  aged  and  infirm!" 

A  boatman  turned  where  he  sat  on  the  gunwale,  lifted 
up  his  hand,  said  something  that  was  not  a  blessing,  and 
the  boats  creaked  on  through  the  twilight.  The  broad 
Indian  river,  that  looked  more  like  a  chain  of  little  lakes 
than  a  stream,  was  as  smooth  as  glass,  reflecting  the  sandy- 
red  sky  in  mid-channel,  but  splashed  with  patches  of  yel- 
low and  dusky  purple  near  and  under  the  low  banks. 

The  superiority  of  this  method  of  distributing  the  de- 
scription is  shown  in  the  following  comparison: 

VAN    BIBBER    AND    THE    SWAN-BOATS 

It    was    very    hot    in    the  It    was    very    hot    in    the 

Park,   and   young  Van   Bib-  Park.     Near  tlie  Fifty-ninth 

her,    who   has    a    good   heart  Street  entrance  there  was   a 

and      a     great     deal     more  by-lane   and   a   bench,   from 


NARKATION" 


49 


money  than  good-hearted 
people  generally  get,  was 
cross  and  somnolent.  He 
had  told  his  groom  to  bring 
a  horse  he  wanted  to  try 
to  the  Fifty-ninth  Street 
entrance  at  ten  o'clock,  and 
the  groom  had  not  ap- 
peared. Hence  Van  Bib- 
ber's crossness. 

He  waited  as  long  as  his 
dignity  would  allow,  and 
then  turned  off  into  a  by- 
lane  and  dropped  on  a  bench 
and  looked  gloomily  at  the 
Lohengrin  swans  with  the 
paddle-wheel  attachment 
that  circle  around  the  lake. 
They  struck  him  as  the  most 
idiotic  inventions  he  had 
ever  seen,  and  he  pitied, 
with  the  pity  of  a  man  who 
contemplates  crossing  the 
ocean  to  be  measured  for 
his  fall  clothes,  the  people 
who  could  find  delight  in 
having  someone  paddle  them 
around  an  artificial  lake. 

Two  little  girls  from  the 
East  Side,  with  a  limch 
basket,  and  an  older  girl, 
with  her  hair  down  her  back, 
sat  down  on  a  bench  beside 
him  and  gazed  at  the  swans. 
The  place  was  becoming 
too  popular,  and  Van  Bib- 
ber decided  to  move  on.  But 
the  bench  on  which  he  sat 
was  in  the  shade,  and  the 
asphalt  walk  leading  to  the 
street  was  in  the  sun,  and 
his   cigarette   was   soothing. 


which  one  could  watch  the 
Lohengrin  swans  with  the 
paddle  -  wheel  attachment 
that  circle  around  the  lake. 
The  bench  was  in  the  shade, 
and  tlie  asphalt  walk  leading 
to  the  street  was  in  the  sun. 

Young  Van  Bibber,  who 
has  a  good  heart  and  a  great 
deal  more  money  than  good- 
hearted  people  generally 
get,  was  cross  and  somno- 
lent. He  had  told  his  groom 
to  bring  a  horse  he  wanted 
to  try  to  this  entrance  at  ten 
o'clock,  and  the  groom  had 
not  a2:)peared.  Hence  Van 
Bibber's  crossness. 

He  waited  as  long  as  his 
dignity  would  allow,  and 
tlien  turned  off  into  the  lane 
and  dropped  on  the  bench 
and  looked  gloomily  at  the 
swans.  They  struck  him  as 
the  most  idiotic  inventions 
he  had  ever  seen,  and  he 
pitied,  with  the  pity  of  a 
man  who  contemplates  cross- 
ing the  ocean  to  be  meas- 
ured for  his  fall  clothes,  the 
people  who  could  find  de- 
liglit  in  having  someone 
paddle  tliem  around  an  ar- 
tificial lake. 

Two  little  girls  from  the 
East  Side,  with  a  lunch 
basket,  and  an  older  girl 
with  her  hair  down  her  back, 
sat  down  on  a  bench  beside 
him  and  gazed  at  the  swans. 

The  place  was  becoming 
too   popular,  and   Van   Bib- 


60  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

SO  he  ignored  the  near  pros-  ber  decided  to  move  on.   But 

ence  of  the  three  little  girls,  he  was  in  the  shade,  and  his 

and  remained  where  he  was.  cigarette  was  soothing,  so  he 

— Richard  Harding  Davis  ignored    the    near    presence 

in  Gallegher  and  other  Sto-  of  the  three  little  girls,  and 

ties.  remained  where  he  was. 

Clearness  also  requires  keeping,  as  far  as  possible,  one 
point  of  view,  that  is,  telling  the  incidents  as  some  one 
person  sees  them.  In  each  of  the  first  three  stories,  pages 
15  to  18,  there  is  a  single  point  of  view.  But  the  follow- 
ing account  of  a  boat-race  would  be  clearer  if,  instead  of 
three  points  of  view,  that  of  a  spectator  and  that  of  the 
two  coxswains,  there  were  but  one,  that  of  a  spectator: 

A    BOAT-RACE 

Both  boats  make  a  beautiful  start,  but  in  the  first  dash 
the  Wisconsin  pace  tells,  and  makes  a  gain  of  a  boat's 
length  before  first  winds  fail.  Then  both  crews  settle  down 
for  a  long,  steady  effort,  reserving  themselves  for  the  tug 
of  war  at  the  finish.  Thus  they  pass  the  first  half-mile 
flag.  As  the  spectator  sees  them,  they  are  rowing  at  about 
the  same  stroke  and  keejiing  in  the  same  relative  positions. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  is  behind.  Coxswain  Miller 
of  Cornell  is  decidedly  hopeful.  He  feels  that  his  boat  is 
full  of  life,  and  that  he  can  call  on  his  crew  with  a  certainty 
of  an  answer.  He  is  near  enough  to  Wisconsin  to  watch 
pretty  closely  the  work  of  his  rivals;  he  observes  that 
the  stroke  is  a  little  lacking  in  snap,  and  that  Number  Three 
occasionally  splashes  a  little.  He  wonders  if  the  spectators 
are  also  aware  of  Wisconsin's  trouble.  His  well-trained 
eye  also  notices  that,  while  both  crews  are  pretty  steady, 
his  own  is  now  gaining  inch  by  inch  on  Wisconsin.  From 
the  bank  this  gain  must  be  imperceptible;  but  there  it  is, 
he  is  surer  and  surer  of  it. 

Coxswain  William  of  Wisconsin  is  beginning  to  fear  that 
Cornell  is  drawing  up  on  him,  but  he  will  not  acknowledge 
the  fact  even  to  himself.    As  he  now  and  then  easts  a  glance 


NARRATION"  61 

over  his  shoulder  out  of  the  tail  of  his  eye^  he  gets  the  im- 
pression that  Cornell  is  coming  minute  by  minute  a  trifle 
closer  to  him.  Finally  he  calls  for  a  spurt  and  says  to 
himself  that  he  will  shake  off  the  Cornell  crew  in  the  last 
half-mile. 

Miller  responds  to  the  challenge  by  signalling  for  a 
quicker  stroke  from  Cornell.  And  now  there  is  no  mistake 
about  the  matter.  The  people  on  the  shore  can  see  that 
Cornell  is  creeping  up  slowly  but  surely.  The  boat  length 
lessens  to  thirty  feet^  then  to  twenty,  steadily  lessens.  But 
the  race  is  not  yet  lost  or  won.  Twenty  feet  is  a  short 
space  to  look  at  on  the  water,  but  a  good  bit  to  pick  up  foot 
by  foot  in  the  last  two  hundred  yards  of  a  desperate  strug- 
gle. With  the  goal  close  ahead  Cornell  is  sticking  gallantly 
to  its  work  and  fighting  for  every  inch  of  gain,  while  the 
Wisconsin  men  are  splashing  rather  badly.  The  Cornell 
supporters  are  cheering  hoarsely  and  furiously,  alternating 
between  hope  and  despair.  But  in  the  last  hundred  yards 
of  the  race  the  Cornell  supporters  grow  confident  and  Wis- 
consin becomes  faint-hearted,  for  the  Cornell  crew  is  surely 
superior;  it  is  not  five  feet  behind  Wisconsin;  it  is  even;  and 
as  both  crews  sweep  to  the  goal,  Cornell  is  five  or  six  feet 
ahead. 

And  finally  clearness  demands  connectives  to  indicate 
with  precision  the  order  and  relation  of  events.  Some 
common  connectives  are :  "before,"  "a  moment  before," 
"a  little  earlier,"  "meanwhile,"  "at  the  same  time," 
"while,"  "as  soon  as,"  "after,"  "then,"  "next,"  "where- 
upon," "presently,"  "immediately,"  "whereat,"  "soon," 
"after  a  short  time,"  "in  a  little  while,"  "at  last," 
"finally."  In  A  Rapid  Slide,  page  39,  there  are  several 
such  phrases: 

At  last  we  reached. 
Now  for  a  coast. 
and  at  the  word. 
I  soon  saw. 
At  the  same  time. 


52  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

18.  Interest  in  Narration. — For  securing  interest 
there  are  three  sugg'estions.  Tlic  first  is,  to  select  leading 
incidents,  to  avoid  the  triviah  The  version  of  Climbing 
Chocorua  on  page  32  contains  so  much  trivial  detail  that 
it  lacks  not  only  unity  but  interest  also.  The  omission 
of  the  bracketed  matter  in  Our  First  Appearance,  35, 
adds  to  the  interest.  One  wa\'^  to  make  a  dull  story 
entertaining  is  ruthlessly  to  strike  out  the  uninter- 
esting passages,  even  if  they  make  up  half  or  three- 
quarters  of  the  whole.  The  gaps  can  usually  be  bridged 
with  a  few  words  of  connective.  A  young  writer — and 
many  old  ones — will  be  surprised  to  find  that  the  mere 
process  of  cutting  out  can  sometimes  transform  a  stupid 
story  of  1,000  words  into  a  liveU'  one  of  250;  and  if,  in 
spite  of  good  advice,  a  writer  insists  on  being  dull,  the 
shorter  the  better. 

The  second  suggestion  is,  to  win  the  reader's  sympathy 
by  telling  the  personal  sensations  roused  by  the  incidents. 
In  the  following  example  the  story  is  told  once  in  a 
general,  impersonal  v>'a.y,  and  again  in  terms  of  personal 
sensation : 

A    NIGHT    ALARM 

Late  last  night  I  woke  up.  I  awoke,  looked  out  of  the 

The  sky  seemed  liglit,  as  if  window,  and  saw  tlie  whole 

there  were  a  fire  down  town ;  sky  aglow.      "Tliere  must  be 

but  when  I  went  to  the  wiu-  a  fire  down  town,"  I  said  to 

dow,    the    light    had    disap-  myself.       When    I    put   my 

peared.     I  was  almost  asleep  head    out    of    the    window, 

again  when  I  thought  there  liowever,  all   signs  of  a  fire 

was  some  smoke.      It  turned  had     disappeared.         Going 

out  that  there  was  smoke  in  back  to  bed  again,  I  fell  into 

the  room.      I  asked  my  room-  another  nap.      A  second  time 

mate  about  it,  and  he  told  me  I  woke  up  and  saw  a  glow  of 


NARRATION  53 

it  was  something  he  had  been      light  —  this      time      shining 
burning  for  his  asthma.  through     smoke.       When     I 

snuffed  the  air  I  distinctly 
smelled  the  smoke.  I  began 
to  investigate.  The  air  out- 
side was  cool,  clear,  and  deli- 
cious ;  inside  it  was  thick,  hot 
and  stifling.  There  could  be 
no  mistake,  the  smoke  that 
filled  the  room  evidently 
came  from  a  fire  in  the  build- 
ing. In  an  instant  I  thought 
of  fire-alarms,  engines,  and 
of  half-dressed  men  hurry- 
ing down  the  fire-escapes.  I 
wondered  what  of  my  prop- 
erty was  the  most  valuable 
and  best  worth  saving.  Then 
I  heard  my  room-mate  turn 
restlessly  in  bed. 

"Say,  old  man,  do  you 
smell  smoke?"  I  asked. 

"Yes,"  he  replied,  "you 
needn't  worry.  It's  only 
something  I've  been  burning 
for  my  asthma." 

The  third  suggestion  is,  if  possible,  to  break  the 
monoton}^  of  direct  narration  by  occasional  bits  of  lively 
dialogue.  The  superiority  of  dialogue  is  shown  by  the 
following  example : 

A   PATIENT   FISHERMAN 

About  six  o'clock  on  a  fine  About  six  o'clock  on  a  fine 

morning    in    the    summer    I  morning    in    the    summer    I 

set    out    from    Philadelphia  set  out  from  Philadelphia  on 

on  a  visit  to  a  friend,  at  tlie  a  visit  to  a  friend,  at  the  dis- 

distance     of     fifteen     miles;  stance  of  fifteen  miles;  and, 

and,  passing  a  brook  where  j^f^^^^^g  ^  brook  where  a  gen- 

a  gentleman  was  angling,  I  tleman    was    angling,    I    in- 


54 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


inquired  if  he  had  caught 
anything.  He  told  uie  he 
had  not,  but  that  he  had  not 
been  there  \ong,  only  two 
hours.  I  wished  him  good 
morning,  and  pursued  my 
journey. 

On  my  return  in  the  even- 
ing I  fomid  him  fixed  to  the 
identical  spot  where  I  had 
left  him,  and  again  inquired 
if  he  had  had  any  sport. 
His  reply  was  that  the  sport 
was  very  good,  for  though 
he  had  caught  no  fish  and 
had  had  no  bites,  he  had  had 
a  most  glorious  nibble. 


quired  if  he  had  caught  any- 
thing. 

"No,  sir,"  said  he,  "I  have 
not  been  here  long,  only  two 
hours." 

I  wished  him  a  good 
morning,  and  pursued  my 
journe}'.  On  my  return  in 
the  evening  I  found  him 
fixed  to  the  identical  spot 
where  I  had  left  him,  and 
again  inquired  if  he  had  had 
any  sport. 

"Very  good,  sir,"  said  he. 

"Caught  a  great  many 
fish?" 

"None  at  all." 

"Had  a  great  many  bites 
though,  I  suppose.^" 

"Not  one,  but  I  had  a 
most  glorious  nibble." — 
Benjamin  Franklin. 


QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  briefly  the  various  types  of  narration. 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  material  for  narration? 

3.  Give  a  list  of  ten  subjects  for  narration  from  your  personal 
experience. 

4.  Write  a  narrative  (that  is,  a  theme  in  which  narration  pre- 
dominates) of  from  300  to  700  words  on  one  of  your  subjects  or  on 
one  of  the  following  : 

Biography  of  a  Friend. 

How  My  Father  Ran  for  Sheriff. 

Life  of  My  First  Cat. 

Life  of  My  First  Doll. 

My  First  Sermon. 

My  First  Week  as  a  Book-Agent. 

How  I   Earned  My  First  Dollar. 

My  School  Life. 


NARRATION"  65 

My  First  Day  at  the  Lathe. 

My  First  Attempt  at  Boat-Building. 

My  Struggles  with  Cooking. 

My  First  Experience  in  Keeping  Hens. 

The  Misfortunes  of  Our  Circus. 

How  We  Made  Our  Second  Touchdown. 

The  Class  Meeting. 

A  Debating  Contest. 

A  Botanical  Excursion. 

The  First  Concert  of  the  Season. 

The  First  Time  I  Saw  a  Play. 

A  Tandem  Drive. 

A  Bicycle  Race. 

Arrested  for  Scorching. 

A  Ride  for  the  Doctor. 

A  Disastrous  Fire. 

A  Railway  Accident. 

A  Ride  on  an  Engine. 

An  ExjDedition  on  a  Hand-Car. 

A  Day's  Duck-Shooting. 

A  Canoe  Trip. 

Crossing  a  Swollen  Stream. 

How  I  Caught  a  Two-Pound  Bass. 

A  Skating  Adventure. 

Climbing  Mount  Blue. 

Shooting  the  Chutes. 

A  Day  by  the  Sea. 

Catching  a  Shark. 

A  Descent  in  a  Diving-Bell. 

Caught  in  a  Squall. 

Shipwrecked. 

A  INIonth  as  a  Cowboy. 

On  the  Plains  in  a  Blizzard. 

My  Winter  in  a  Logging  Camp. 

Breaking  the  Log-Jam. 

A  Week  in  the  Woods. 

A  Spiritualistic  Seance. 

5.  Into  what  two  classes  do  imaginative  narratives  fall  ? 

6.  Give  a  list  of  three  subjects  for  imaginative  narration. 

7.  Write  a  narrative  of  from  300  to  700  words  on  one  of  yom 
subjects  or  on  one  of  the  following  : 


56  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

Autobiograpliy  of  a   Dog. 

History  of  a  Counterfeit  Quarter. 

History  of  a  Raindroj). 

Experiences  of  a  Circulating  Library  Book. 

Experiences  of  a  Desk. 

An  Offence  against  Discipline. 

A  Family  Tradition. 

The  Last  Voyage  of  the  Evangel. 

8.  Give  a  list  of  ten  subjects  for  narration  drawn  from  books. 

9.  Write  a  narrative  of  from  300  to  1,000  words  on  one  of  youi 
subjects  or  on  one  of  the  following  : 

Priam's  Visit  to  Achilles,  The  Iliad. 
The  Storm  in  the  First  Book  of  The  JEneid. 
The  Court  Scene  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice. 
Summar}'  of  As  You  lAke  It. 
The  Rescue  of  Rebecca^  Ivanhoe. 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  at  the  Play,  The  Spectator. 
The  Drowning  of  Ham  Peggotty,  David  Copperfield. 
Story  of  Doctor  Manette,  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Harry   Warrington   Jumps   for  the    Honor   of   Virginia, 
I'he  Virginians. 

Ichabod  Crane's  Ride,  The  Sketch-Book. 

The  Disappearance  of  Wakefield,  Twice-Told  Tales. 

Summary  of  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

Story  of  John  Silver,  Treasure  Island. 

Summary  of  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde. 

Horatius  at  the  Bridge. 

Story  of  the  Ancient  Mariner. 

The  Funeral  of  Elaine,  Idylls  of  the  King. 

Story  of  Evangeline. 

The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 

Summary'  of  INIatthew  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

Early  Life  of  Goldsmith. 

Life  of  George  Eliot. 

The  First  Twenty-five  Years  of  Macaulaj^'s  Life. 

Life  of  Longfellow. 

The  Exploit  of  Pheidippides. 

Story  of  Rcgulus. 

Cromwell's  Public  Career. 

Boyhood  of  Franklin. 


NARRATION  57 

Life  of  Lincoln. 

Grant's  Career  as  General. 

Life  of  Lady  Jane  Grey 

Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

The  Invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes. 

The  Battle  of  Thermopylae. 

Caesar's  First  Campaign  in  Britain. 

The  First  Crusade. 

Jack  Cade's   Rebellion. 

The  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

The  Retreat  from  Moscow. 

The  Death  of  Nelson. 

The  Landing  on  Plymouth  Rock. 

Braddock's  Defeat. 

Paul  Reveres  Ride. 

The  Winter  at  Valley  Forge. 

History  of  Faneuil  Hall. 

The  Rush  to  California  for  Gold. 

The  Battle  of  Lookout  Mountain. 

The  Chicago  Fire. 

The  Presidential  Election  of   1876. 

The  Chicago  Railway  Strike  of  1 8.94. 

The  Republican  Convention  of  1896. 

10.  Define  unity  in  narration. 

11.  What  are  the  common  violations  of  the  principles  of  unity  ? 

12.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  narrative  lacks 
unity : 

ENNUI   BY    MARIA    EDGEWORTH 

Lord  Glenthorn  is  bred  up,  by  a  false  and  indulgent 
guardian,  as  the  heir  of  an  immense  English  and  Irish 
estate ;  and  long  before  he  is  of  age  exhausts  almost  all  the 
resources  by  which  life  can  be  made  tolerable  to  those  who 
have  nothing  to  wish  for.  He  tries  travelling,  gaming, 
gluttony,  hunting,  pugilism,  and  coach-driving,  but  is  so 
pressed  down  with  the  load  of  life  as  to  be  repeatedly  on 
the  eve  of  suicide.  He  is  in  danger  of  falling  into  a  con- 
firmed lethargy,  when  it  is  fortunately  discovered  that  in- 
stead of  being  the  son  of  a  peer  of  boundless  fortune,  he 
is  the  son  of  a  cottager  who  lives  on  potatoes.     With  great 


58  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

magnanimity  he  instantly  gives  up  the  fortune  and  takes 
to  the  study  of  law. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  arduous  career  he  falls  in  love 
again,  this  time  with  the  lady  entitled,  after  the  death  of 
the  blacksmith,  to  succeed  to  his  former  estate.  He  rises 
in  his  profession;  marries  the  lady  of  his  heart;  and  in  due 
time  returns,  an  altered  man,  to  the  possession  of  his  for- 
mer affluence. 

13.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  selection,  judged 
as  narration,  lacks  unity  : 

CATCHING   A   JACK 

On  this  fishing  expedition  Orion  and  I  each  carried  a  long 
hazel  rod,  on  the  end  of  which  was  fastened  a  slip-noose 
of  thin  copi^cr  wire,  as  flexible  as  thread.  Brass  wire  is 
not  so  good;  it  is  stifFer  and  too  cons])icuous  in  the  water. 

When  we  reached  the  stream  Orion  said  he  would  go 
twenty  yards  farther  up.  The  rushes  grew  along  the  shore 
— the  old  ones  yellow,  the  young  green:  in  places  this 
fringe  of  rush  and  sedge  and  flag  must  have  been  five  or 
six  yards  wide,  and  it  extended  as  far  as  could  be  seen  up 
the  brook.  No  doubt  the  cattle  trod  in  the  edge  of  the  firm 
ground  by  degrees  every  year  to  get  at  the  water,  and  thus 
widened  the  marsh. 

After  a  long  look  across,  I  began  to  examine  the  stream 
near  at  hand;  the  rushes  and  flags  had  forced  the  clear, 
sweet  current  away  from  the  meadow,  so  that  it  ran  just 
under  the  bank.  I  was  making  out  the  brown  sticks  at  the 
bottom,  when  there  was  a  slight  splash — caused  by  Orion, 
who  was  farther  uji — and  almost  at  the  same  instant  some- 
thing shot  down  the  brook  toward  me.  Orion  had  doubtless 
landed  a  jack,  and  its  fellow  rushed  away.  Under  a  large 
dead  bough  that  had  fallen  across  the  stream  I  saw  the  long 
slender  fish  lying  a  few  feet  from  the  bank,  motionless  save 
for  the  gentle  curving  wave  of  the  tail  edges.  So  faint  was 
that  waving  curl  that  it  seemed  caused  rather  by  the  flow 
of  the  current  than  by  the  volition  of  the  fish.  The  wings 
of  the  swallow  work  the  whole  of  the  longest  summer  day, 
but  the  fins  of  the  fish  in  running  water  are  never  still: 
day  and  night  they  move  continuously. 


NAKRATION  59 

By  slow  degrees  I  advanced  the  hazel  rod,  keeping  it 
at  iirst  near  to  and  parallel  with  the  bank,  because  jack  do 
not  like  anything  that  stretches  across  them ;  and  I  imagine 
other  fish  have  the  same  dislike  to  riglit  angles.  The 
straight  shadow  even  seems  to  arouse  suspicion — no  boughs 
are  ever  straight.  Perhaps  if  it  were  possible  to  angle 
without  a  rod  there  would  be  more  success,  particularly  in 
small  streams.  But  after  getting  the  stick  almost  out  far 
enough,  it  became  evident  that  the  dead  branch  would  not 
let  me  slip  the  wire  into  the  water  in  front  of  the  jack  in 
the  usual  way.  So  I  had  to  draw  it  back  again  as  grad- 
ually as  it  had  been  put  forth. 

With  a  fish  everything  must  be  done  gradually  and  with- 
out a  jerk.  A  sudden,  jerking  movement  immediately 
alarms  them.  If  you  walk  gently  by  they  remain  still,  but 
start  or  lift  the  arm  quickly  and  they  dart  for  deep  water. 
The  object  of  withdrawing  the  rod  was  to  get  at  and  en- 
large the  loojo  in  order  that  it  might  be  slipped  over  his 
tail,  since  the  head  was  protected  by  the  bough.  It  is  a 
more  delicate  operation  to  pass  the  wire  up  from  behind; 
it  has  to  go  farther  before  the  spot  that  allows  a  firm  grip 
is  reached,  and  fish  are  well  aware  that  natural  objects, 
such  as  twigs,  float  down  with  the  current.  Anything,  there- 
fore, approaching  from  behind  or  rubbing  upward  is  sus- 
picious. As  this  fish  had  just  been  startled,  it  would  not 
do  to  let  the  wire  touch  him  at  all. 

After  enlarging  the  loop  I  put  the  rod  slowly  forth 
again,  worked  the  wire  up  stream,  slipped  the  noose  over 
his  tail,  and  gently  got  it  up  to  the  balance  of  the  fish. 
Waiting  a  moment  to  get  the  elbow  over  the  end  of  the  rod, 
so  as  to  have  a  good  leverage,  I  gave  a  sudden  jerk  up- 
ward, and  felt  the  weight  instantly.  But  the  top  of  the 
rod  struck  the  overhanging  bough,  and  there  was  my  fish, 
Imng  indeed,  but  still  in  the  water  near  the  surface.  Nor 
could  I  throw  it  on  the  bank  because  of  the  elder  bushes. 
So  I  shortened  the  rod,  pulling  it  in  toward  me  quickly 
and  dragging  the  jack  through  the  water.  The  pliant  wire 
had  cut  into  the  scales  and  skin — he  might  have  been  safely 
left  suspended  over  the  stream  all  day ;  but  in  the  eagerness 
of  the  moment  I  was  not  satisfied  till  I  had  him  up  on  the 
mound. 

There  were  six  jacks  strung  on  a  twisted  withy  when  we 


60  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

got  back  to  the  stunted  oak  and  rested  there,  tasting  acid 
sorrel  leaves. 

14.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  selection,  judged 
as  narration,  lacks  unity  : 

AN    INCIDENT    IN    A    COFFEE-HOUSE 

The  medium  between  a  fop  and  a  sloven  is  what  a  man 
of  sense  would  endeavor  to  keep ;  yet  it  is  well  for  a  man  to 
appear  in  his  habit  rather  above  than  below  his  fortune ; 
for  he  will  find  that  a  handsome  suit  of  clothes  always  pro- 
cures some  additional  respect. 

I  happened  the  other  day  to  call  in  at  a  celebrated  cof- 
fee-house near  the  Temple.  I  had  not  been  there  long  when 
there  came  in  an  elderly  man  very  meanly  dressed  and  sat 
down  by  me.  He  had  a  threadbare,  loose  coat  on,  which  it 
was  plain  he  wore  to  keep  himself  warm,  and  not  to  favor 
his  undersuit,  wliich  seemed  to  have  been  at  least  its  con- 
temporary; his  short  wig  and  hat  were  both  answerable  to 
the  rest  of  his  apparel.  He  was  no  sooner  seated  than  he 
called  for  a  dish  of  tea;  but  as  several  gentlemen  in  the 
room  wanted  other  things,  the  boys  of  the  house  did  not 
think  themselves  at  leisure  to  mind  him.  I  could  observe 
the  old  fellow  was  very  uneasy  at  the  affront  and  at  his 
being  obliged  to  repeat  his  commands  several  times  to  no 
jiurpose;  till  at  last  one  of  the  lads  presented  him  with 
some  stale  tea  in  a  broken  dish,  accompanied  with  a 
plate  of  brown  sugar.  This  so  raised  his  indignation  that 
after  several  obliging  appellations  of  "dog"  and  "rascal,"  he 
asked  aloud  before  the  whole  company: 

"Why  must  I  be  used  with  less  respect  than  that  fop 
there  .^"  pointing  to  a  well-dressed  young  gentleman  who 
was  drinking  tea  at  the  opposite  table. 

The  boy  of  the  house  replied  with  a  good  deal  of  pertness : 

"My  master  has  two  sorts  of  customers,  and  the  gentle- 
man at  the  other  table  has  given  me  many  a  sixpence  for 
wiping  his  shoes." 

By  this  time  the  young  Templar,  who  found  his  honor 
concerned  in  the  dispute,  approached  the  old  man  with  an 
air  of  deference  and  respect.  The  latter  greeted  him  with 
the  words : 

"Hark  you,  sirrah,  I  will  pay  off  your  extravagant  bills 


NARRATIOJS^  61 

once  more,  but  will  take  eiFeetual  care  for  the  future  that 
your  prodigality  shall  not  spirit  up  a  parcel  of  rascals  to 
insult  your  father." 

Though  I  by  no  means  approve  either  the  impudence  of 
the  servants  or  the  extravagance  of  the  son,  I  cannot  but 
think  the  old  gentleman  was,  in  some  measure,  justly  served 
for  walking  in  masquerade — I  mean  appearing  in  a  dress 
so  much  beneath  his  quality  and  estate. 

15.  What  is  the  general  rule  for  the  order  of  material  in  narrative? 

16.  Rewrite  the  following  narrative  and  improve  the  order : 

A     SMASH-UP 

The  train  was  ready  to  start,  and  there  was  a  sound  of 
puffs  and  of  escaping  steam.  "All  aboard!"  shouted  the 
conductor.  The  train,  which  moved  slowly  at  first,  was  in 
a  few  seconds  under  full  headway.  There  were  only  a  few 
passengers,  but  they  were  in  high  spirits  and  sang  and 
shouted  to  the  pedestrians  who  paused  to  watch  the  train 
go  by.  Alas !  there  was  a  break  in  the  track.  A  yawning 
gulch  opened  suddenly  before  the  eyes  of  the  astonished 
and  terrified  engineer.  He  tried  to  check  the  mad  speed, 
but  in  vain.  The  engine  dropped  into  the  chasm  and  tui-ned 
over;  the  coaches  drove  headlong  after  it.  From  the  piled- 
up  mass  of  wreckage  rose  a  chorus  of  agonizing  shrieks. 

A  nurse-maid  came  running  with  horror  written  in  every 
line  of  her  face: 

"Bless  me,  Bobby  Bosworth,  if  you  ain't  tored  the  whole 
seat  out  of  your  pants!  Now  you  children  jus'  take  up 
your  wagons  and  go  right  home.  Jus'  look  at  the  new  tri- 
cycle your  aunt  gave  you,  Bobby !  One  wheel  turned  right 
out  of  shape !  I  told  you  not  to  run  over  that  gutter  in 
the  first  place.  The  next  time  you  want  to  play  train,  you 
jus'  let  me  know,  and  I'll  train  you!" 

Other  nursemaids  and  friends  came  to  the  rescue  of  the 
other  children. 

17.  Write  a  news  story  of  some  event  that  has  fallen  under  your 
observation  within  the  last  year. 

18.  Rewrite  the  following  news  story  : 


62  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 


SHOT    BY    A    BURGLAR 

Sarah  J.  Ober  is  an  aged  widow.  She  lives  alone  on  a 
farm  near  Cedar  Grove,  ten  miles  from  Somerville,  New 
Jersey.  Last  Thursday  night  slie  was  awakened  about  ten 
o'clock  by  the  breaking  of  glass  in  her  bedroom  window. 
As  she  arose  she  was  confronted  by  two  men  who  had 
crawled  through  the  window. 

She  was  seized  by  one  of  the  men,  who  pointed  a  re- 
volver at  her  head  and  ordered  her  to  reveal  the  place 
where  she  kept  her  money.  Finally  the  men  succeeded  in 
robbing  her. 

The  news  of  the  robbery  was  slow  in  reaching  Somer- 
ville, because  Cedar  Grove  is  an  isolated  place.  County 
Detective  Totten  at  once  started  to  search  for  the  criminals. 

When  Mrs.  Ober  was  first  seized  by  the  robbers  she 
struggled  with  them  for  a  while  and  then  begged  for 
mercy.  While  one  of  the  men  struck  matches  in  order  to 
make  a  light,  the  other  continued  to  point  a  revolver  at  her 
head  and  threaten  her. 

She  was  able  to  make  out  that  the  men  were  mulattoes. 
Detective  Totten  has  arrested  two  negroes  on  suspicion. 
They  are  able  to  account  for  their  whereabouts  on  the  night 
of  the  robbery,  and  they  will  therefore  be  released. 

After  considerable  resistance  Mrs.  Ober  finally  led  the 
way  to  an  old  chest,  where  she  kept  a  small  amount  of  money 
and  a  few  jewels.  While  the  men  were  searching  the  chest 
by  the  light  of  matches,  Mrs.  Ober  tried  to  conceal  a  purse 
containing  twelve  dollars.  One  of  the  men  saw  her,  felled 
her  with  a  blow  in  the  face,  and  took  the  money. 

At  one  time  the  robbers  placed  a  revolver  against  ISIrs. 
Ober's  head,  and  threatened  to  kill  her  instantly  if  she  did 
not  show  them  more  money,  which  they  insisted  she  had 
hidden  elsewhere  in  the  house.  She  seized  the  revolver  with 
both  hands,  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  wrenched  it  from 
her  assailant.  She  ran  to  a  corner  of  the  room,  pointed  the 
revolver  at  one  of  the  men  and  was  about  to  shoot,  when 
the  other  burglar  sprang  forward  and  dealt  her  a  blow  with 
his  fist  that  knocked  her  down  again.  He  then  grabbed 
the  revolver  from  her  hand  and  shot  her  as  she  was  about 
to   regain  her   feet.     Although  the   bullet  passed  entirely 


NARRATION"  63 

through  her  shoulder,  she  continued  to  fight  her  assailant 
and  cry  for  help. 

Just  after  the  robber  had  knocked  her  down  and  taken 
her  purse  with  the  twelve  dollars,  the  boy  had  come  to  her 
help.  The  robbers  had  then  left  the  house,  with  the  threat 
that  if  the  boj^  or  the  woman  left  the  house  before  morning, 
both  would  be  killed.  They  had  not  been  away  long  when 
they  came  back  again  and  renewed  their  attack,  as  de- 
scribed above. 

After  shooting  the  woman,  the  robbers  fired  two  more 
shots  in  the  dark,  but  hit  no  one.  Then  they  jumped  out 
of  the  window  and  ran  away. 

The  neighbors  believe  that  the  crime  was  committed  by 
negroes,  who  live  near  and  are  acquainted  with  the  Ober 
farm. 

When  the  robbers  had  run  away  Mrs.  Ober  and  the  boy 
stayed  till  neighbors,  who  had  heard  the  shots,  came  to  their 
assistance.  INIrs.  Ober  was  carried  to  the  home  of  a  neigh- 
bor, and  Dr.  Cooper,  of  Middlebush,  two  miles  away,  was 
summoned.  He  has  reported  that  she  is  still  alive  and  may 
recover. 

Mrs.  Ober  is  thought  to  have  a  considerable  sum  of  money 
secreted  in  her  house,  in  fact,  several  hundred  dollars  in  a 
hiding-place  which  the  burglars  did  not  get. 

19.  Draw  plans  of  the  narratives  on  pages  16-26. 

20.  What  is  the  principle  of  proportion? 

21.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  selection  is 
disproportioned : 

THEASUKE  ISLAND    BY    ROBERT    LOUIS    STEVENSON 

Billy  Bones  was  a  retired  pirate,  who  in  the  last  century 
lived  at  the  Admiral  Benbow  Inn,  on  the  English  coast  some 
distance  from  Bristol.  He  had  been  mate  under  the  famous 
Captain  Flint,  and  he  had  in  his  possession  a  chart  of  an 
island  on  which  Flint  had  buried  a  large  amount  of  treas- 
ure. He  sought  to  escape  his  surviving  comrades,  who  were 
determined  to  obtain  this  chart;  but  they  discovered  his 
hiding-jolace,  and  informed  him  that  he  was  deprived  of 
his  authority  and  must  surrender  what  they  wanted. 
Shortly  afterward  he  died  of  a  stroke  of  apoplexy.     The 


64  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

pirates  attacked  the  inn,  but  Mrs.  Hawkins,  the  landlady, 
and  her  son  Jim  got  safely  away  with  the  packet  containing 
the  chart.  Jim  carried  it  to  the  county  magistrates,  Doctor 
Livesey  and  Squire  Trelawney,  who  examined  it  and  de- 
cided to  Imnt  for  the  buried  money. 

The  Squire  went  at  once  to  Bristol  to  make  the  necessary 
preparations.  He  secured  a  ship,  fitted  it  out  and  engaged 
a  crew.  In  these  matters  he  received  much  help  from  an 
old  one-legged  seaman.  Long  John  Silver,  whom  he  signed 
as  cook.  Though  the  squire  and  his  friends  soon  became 
aware  that  the  purpose  of  the  voyage,  a  thing  supposed  to 
be  known  only  to  tliem,  was  understood  by  all  on  board,  the 
captain  was  the  only  one  who  anticipated  any  trouble. 
Shortly  before  they  reached  the  island,  however,  Jim  over- 
heard a  conversation  between  some  of  the  sailors,  and 
learned  that  the  crew  was  almost  wholly  made  up  of  the 
same  pirates  who  liad  attacked  the  inn,  and  that  these  men, 
under  the  leadership  of  John  Silver,  had  formed  a  plot  to 
kill  all  on  board  except  their  own  number,  and  secure  the 
treasure  for  themselves.  This  information  Jim  communi- 
cated to  his  friends,  but  they  decided  they  could  do  nothing 
more  than  guard  against  surprise. 

After  many  exciting  adventures,  in  the  course  of  which 
most  of  the  pirates  and  some  of  the  others  were  killed,  the 
squire's  party  procured  the  treasure  and  carried  it  safely 
home. 

32.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  making  a  narrative 
clear  ? 

23.  Can  you  rewrite  the  following  narrative,  so  that  the  descrip- 
tion shall  not  come  in  a  block  at  the  beginning  ? 

THE   BITEIl   BITTEN 

Across  the  street  is  a  large  vacant  lot  with  uneven  sur- 
face. At  this  time  of  year  the  melting  snow  fills  the 
hollows  to  overflowing  and  sends  little  rivulets  down  into 
the  gutter.  In  tlie  largest  of  the  streams  the  yoimgsters 
of  tlie  neighborhood  set  their  water-wheels,  about  which  are 
always  groups  of  noisy,  dirty  little  fellows.  The  other  day 
a  stout  old  gentleman  with  a  crabbed  countenance  was  gin- 


NARRATION"  65 

gerly  picking  his  way  across  the  field  when  he  came  to  a 
place  where  some  urchins  had  dammed  a  little  brook  with 
mud  and  sticks,  and  had  put  in  a  bit  of  pipe  for  a  chute- 
He  could  easily  have  gone  round,  but,  since  he  was  too  dig- 
nified to  turn  aside,  he  demolished  the  dam  with  his  cane 
and,  as  soon  as  the  stream  had  subsided,  stepped  over.  His 
foot  slipped  in  the  mud,  he  turned  half  round  to  regain 
his  balance,  and  sat  squarely  down  in  the  dark  brown  water, 
which  gurgled  softly  down  the  legs  of  his  trousers.  The 
funniest  thing  was  that  the  youngsters'  sympathy  overcame 
all  other  feelings,  and  they  helped  him  up. 

24.  Will  you  rewrite  the  story  on  page  50  three  times  :  from  the 
point  of  view  first  of  a  spectator,  second  of  the  Wisconsin  coxswain, 
and  third  of  the  Cornell  coxswain.  Each  of  these  versions  will 
necessarily  be  shorter  than  the  present  one. 

25.  Read  a  brief  biography  of  Benjamin  Franklin  ;  work  the  facts 
which  you  remember  from  your  reading,  together  with  those  in  the 
following  outline,  into  a  clear  nd  connected  account  of  Franklin's 
life. 

BENJAMIN    FRANKLIN 

Benjamin  Franklin  was  born  in  Boston,  1706;  died  in 
Philadelphia,  1790.  He  removed  from  Boston  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1723,  where  he  soon  began  to  prosper  as  a  printer 
and  publisher;  he  rapidly  rose  to  great  influence  in  the 
colony,  founding  the  American  Philosophical  Society  and 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1752,  by  his  famous 
kite  experiment,  he  demonstrated  that  lightning  is  elec- 
tricity. In  1753  he  was  made  deputy  postmaster-general 
for  America;  from  17 5 7  to  1762,  and  again  from  1764  to 
1775,  he  acted  as  agent  for  Pennsylvania  (and  a  part  of  the 
time  for  Georgia,  New  Jersey,  and  Massachusetts)  at  the 
British  court;  elected  to  Congress  in  1775,  and  helped  to 
draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  From  1776  to 
1785  he  resided  in  France  as  ambassador,  and  played  a 
prominent  part  in  winning  French  aid  and  in  making  a 
favorable  treaty  with  England.  From  1785  to  1788  he  was 
president  of  Pennsylvania;  he  sat  in  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1787- 


66  ENGLISH   COMPOSITIOX 

26.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  making  a  narrative  interesting  ? 

27.  Make  the  stories,  How  Two  Young  Men  Got  Rich.,  page  45, 
and  Catching  a  Jack,  58,  more  interesting  by  cutting  them. 

28.  Rewrite  the  story,  Shot  by  a  Bnrglar,  62,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  boy.  Give  his  personal  sensations ;  and  put  the 
threats  of  the  robbers  and  the  replies  of  Mrs.  Ober  in  the  form  of 
dialogue. 


CHAPTER  III 

DESCRIPTION 

19.  Kinds  of  Description. — Descriptions  differ  as  widely 
as  narratives.  A  description  may  consist  of  a  single 
phrase,  like  "blue-eyed  beauty"  ;  it  may,  like  Thackeray's 
Paris  Sketch  Booh,  fill  a  volume.  It  may  be  as  prosaic 
as  an  auction  catalogue;  and  it  may  be  exquisite  poetry. 
For  the  purposes  of  this  book,  however,  we  may  bar  out 
whole  volumes  and  poetry.  Descriptions  written  for 
school  exercises  should  contain  between  fifty  and  three 
hundred  words,  usually  prose. 

20.  Sources  of  Material. — For  description,  as  for  nar- 
ration, the  three  sources  of  material  are  personal  observa- 
tion, the  imagination,  and  books ;  but  since  descriptions  of 
things  we  have  actually  seen  are  generall}'^  more  vivid, 
only  subjects  from  observation  will  be  discussed  here. 
One  may  describe  anything  from  a  grain  of  sand  to  a  city, 
from  a  block  of  wood  to  a  human  character.  The  amount 
and  kind  of  material  are  indicated  by  the  following  ex- 
amples : 

TRADDLES 

Poor  Traddles !  In  a  tight  sky-blue  suit  that  made  his 
arms  and  legs  like  German  sausages  or  roly-poly  puddings, 
he  was  the  merriest  and  most  miserable  of  all  the  boys.  He 
was  always  being  caned — I  think  he  was  caned  every  day 
that  half-j^ear,  except  one  holiday  Monday  when  he  was 
only  rulered  on  both  hands — and  was  always  going  to  write 

67 


68  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

to  liis  uncle  about  it,  and  never  did.  After  laying  his  head 
on  tlie  desk  for  a  little  while  he  would  cheer  up  somehow, 
begin  to  laugh  again,  and  draw  skeletons  all  over  his  slate 
before  his  eyes  were  dry.  I  used  at  first  to  wonder  what 
comfort  Traddk's  found  in  drawing  skeletons,  and  for  some 
time  looked  upon  him  as  a  sort  of  hermit,  who  reminded  him- 
self by  those  symbols  of  mortality  that  caning  couldn't  last 
forever.  But  I  believe  he  only  did  it  because  they  were  easy 
and  didn't  want  any  features. 

He  was  very  honorable,  Traddles  was ;  and  held  it  as  a 
solemn  duty  in  the  boys  to  stand  by  one  another.  He  suf- 
fered for  this  on  several  occasions ;  and  particularly  once, 
when  Steerforth  laughed  in  church,  and  the  beadle  thought 
it  was  Traddles  and  took  him  out.  I  see  him  now,  going 
away  in  custody,  despised  by  the  congregation.  He  never 
said  who  was  the  real  offender,  though  he  smarted  for  it 
next  day,  and  was  imprisoned  so  many  hours  that  he  came 
forth  with  a  whole  churchyard-full  of  skeletons  swarming 
all  over  his  Latin  dictionary.  But  he  had  his  reward. 
Steerforth  said  there  was  nothing  of  the  sneak  in  Traddles, 
and  we  all  felt  that  to  be  the  highest  praise.  For  my  part, 
I  could  have  gone  through  a  good  deal  (though  I  was  much 
less  brave  than  Traddles  and  nothing  like  so  old)  to  have 
won  such  a  recompense. — Charles  Dickens  in  David  Cop- 
perfield. 

THE    VAN   TASSEL   FARM 

Old  Baltus  Van  Tassel  was  a  perfect  picture  of  a  thriv- 
ing, contented,  liberal-hearted  farmer.  He  seldom,  it  is 
true,  sent  either  his  eyes  or  his  thoughts  beyond  the  boun- 
daries of  his  own  farm ;  but  within  those  everything  was 
snug,  happy,  and  well-conditioned.  He  was  satisfied  with 
his  wealtli,  but  not  proud  of  it;  and  piqued  himself  upon  the 
hearty  abundance,  rather  than  the  style  in  which  he  lived. 
His  stronghold  was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson, 
in  one  of  those  green,  sheltered,  fertile  nooks,  in  which  the 
Dutch  farmers  are  so  fond  of  nestling.  A  great  elm-tree 
spread  its  broad  branches  over  it;  at  the  foot  of  which 
bubbled  up  a  spring  of  the  softest  and  sweetest  water,  in 
a  little  well,  formed  of  a  barrel,  and  then  stole  sparkling 
away  through  the  grass,  to  a  neighboring  brook,  that  bab- 


DESCRIPTION"  69 

bled  along  among  alders  and  dwarf  willows.  Hard  by  the 
farm-house  was  a  vast  barn,  that  might  have  served  for  a 
church,  every  window  and  crevice  of  which  seemed  burst- 
ing forth  with  the  treasures  of  the  farm :  the  flail  was  busily 
resounding  within  it  from  morning  to  night;  swallows  and 
martins  skimmed  twittering  about  the  eaves ;  and  rows  of 
pigeons,  some  with  one  eye  turned  up,  as  if  watching  the 
weather,  some  with  their  heads  under  tlieir  wings  or  buried 
in  their  bosoms,  and  others  swelling  and  cooing  and  bow- 
ing about  their  dames,  were  enjoying  the  sunshine  on  the 
roof.  Sleek,  unwieldy  porkers  were  grunting  in  the  repose 
and  abundance  of  their  pens,  from  whence  sallied  forth 
now  and  then  troops  of  sucking-pigs,  as  if  to  snuff  the  air. 
A  stately  squadron  of  snowy  geese  were  riding  in  an  adjoin- 
ing pond,  convoying  whole  fleets  of  ducks ;  regiments  of 
turke3's  were  gobbling  through  the  farm-yard ;  and  guinea 
fowls  fretting  about  it,  like  ill-tempered  housewives,  with 
their  peevish,  discontented  cry.  Before  the  barn  door 
strutted  the  gallant  cock,  that  pattern  of  a  husband,  a  war- 
rior, and  a  fine  gentleman;  clapping  his  burnished  wings, 
and  crowing  in  the  pride  and  gladness  of  his  heart — some- 
times tearing  up  the  earth  with  his  feet,  and  then  generously 
calling  his  ever-hungry  family  of  wives  and  children  to 
enjoy  the  rich  morsel  which  he  had  discovered. 

The  pedagogue's  mouth  watered  as  he  looked  upon  this 
sumptuous  promise  of  luxurious  winter  fare.  In  his  devour- 
ing mind's  eye  he  pictured  to  himself  every  roasting-pig 
running  about  with  a  pudding  in  its  belly  and  an  apple  in 
its  mouth;  the  pigeons  were  snugly  put  to  bed  in  a  com- 
fortable pie  and  tucked  in  with  a  coverlet  of  crust;  the 
geese  were  swimming  in  their  own  gravy;  and  the  ducks 
pairing  cosily  in  dishes,  like  snug  married  couples,  with  a 
decent  competency  of  onion  sauce.  In  the  porkers  he  saw 
carved  out  the  future  sleek  side  of  bacon  and  juicy,  relishing 
ham;  not  a  turkc}^  but  he  beheld  daintily  trussed  up  with 
its  gizzard  under  its  wing,  and,  peradventure,  a  necklace  of 
savory  sausages;  and  even  bright  chanticleer  himself  lay 
sprawling  on  his  back  in  a  side  dish,  with  uplifted  claws,  as 
if  craving  that  quarter  which  his  chivalrous  spirit  disdained 
to  ask  while  living. — Washington  Irving  in  the  Legend 
of  Sleepy  Hollow. 


70 


e>;glish  composition 


THE   GORE    PLACE,    WALTHAM,   MASS. 

About  eight  miles  from  the  Boston  State  House,  one  of 
the  roads  of  the  Charles  River  valley,  after  passing  through 
a  somewhat  squalid  manufacturing  district,  suddenly  in 
Waltliam  becomes  a  rural  lane.     It  winds  its  way,  first  i)ast 


THE    GORE    PLACE,  WALTHAM,  MASS. 


the  low-roofed  farm-house  (marked  6  in  the  accompanying 
plan),  and  then  past  the  south  side  of  the  lawn  and  mansion 
of  the  old  Gore  estate.  The  lane  (marked  1,  1)  is  bordered 
on  eacli  side  by  trees.  From  tlie  mansion  the  grass  sweeps 
up  to  the  wall  of  the  lane.  No  line  of  any  sort  breaks  the 
flowing  breadth  of  the  lawn,  for  the  approach-road,  which 
leaves  the  lane  near  the  farm-liouse,  goes  through  trees  to 


DESCEIPTION  71 

the  door  in  the  north  front  of  the  house.  The  simple  but 
well-proportioned  building  is  set  off  against  a  background  of 
foliage,  and  the  ends  of  the  low  wings  are  shadowed  by  tall 
pines  and  chestnuts,  whose  brothers,  forming  noble  masses 
at  the  sides  of  the  lawn,  support  and  frame  the  house,  and, 
joined  with  it,  compose  one  satisfying  picture. 

The  brick  house,  which  is  painted  white,  contains  many 
finely  proportioned  rooms.  Two  doorways  open  upon  a  long 
platform  on  the  north  front.  Between  these  doors  stretches 
a  hall  dining-room,  with  a  marble  iloor,  and  a  fireplace  at 
each  end.  The  large  bay  in  the  south  front  contains  an  oval 
drawing-room;  on  one  side  of  this  room  is  a  breakfast-room, 
and  on  the  other  a  parlor;  the  east  wing  contains  a  billiard- 
room,  the  west  the  kitchen  and  offices. 

The  carriage-turn,  and  the  whole  north  side  of  the  house, 
is  crowded  with  large  trees ;  many  hemlocks,  whose  soft 
boughs  sweep  the  ground  at  the  edge  of  the  drive,  several 
umbrella  magnolias  among  the  hemlocks,  some  large  lindens 
and  many  very  tall  white  pines.  Just  beyond  is  the  flower- 
garden,  carefull}^  sheltered  and  quaintly  laid  out  in  geo- 
metric fashion,  with  great  banks  of  shrubs  at  the  sides, 
plenty  of  smooth  grass  and  large  beds  crowded  with  peren- 
nials in  rich,  old-fashioned  array.  A  small  enclosure  for 
deer  adjoins  the  garden;  two  smooth  and  open  hay-fields  are 
close  at  hand,  and  around  all  this  forty-acre  home-lot  stands 
a  dense  belt  of  forest  trees,  shutting  out  the  commonplace 
world  and  affording  a  pleasantly  shaded  walk  of  something 
like  a  mile  in  length. 

South  of  the  lane  is  an  open  field  and  a  winding  pond, 
whose  distant  further  end  is  lost  in  the  shadow  of  a  pine 
wood,  from  out  the  edge  of  which  a  white  birch  leans  over 
the  water.  Larches,  too,  and  small  beeches  grow  in  the  edge 
of  this  distant  wood  and  enliven  the  darkness  of  the  pines 
in  spring  and  autumn,  while  here  and  there  above  the  tops  of 
the  trees  appear  the  crests  of  low  hills,  a  mile  or  two  away 
beyond  the  river. — Arranged  from  a  paper  by  Charles 
Eliot,  in  Charles  Eliot,  Landscape  Architect. 

THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  CHARTRES 

At  last,  after  more  than  once  catching  a  glimpse,  high 
above  some  slit  between  the  houses,  of  the  clear  gray  towers 
shining  against  the  blue  sky,  you  push  forward  again,  risk 


72  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

another  short  cut,  turn  another  interposing  corner,  and  stand 
before  the  goal  of  j'our  j)ilgriinage. 

Like  most  French  cathedrals,  it  rises  straight  out  of  the 
street,  and  is  destitute  of  that  setting  of  turf  and  trees  and 
deaneries  and  canonries  which  contribute  so  largely  to  the 
impressiveness  of  the  great  English  churches.  Thirty  years 
ago  a  row  of  old  houses  was  glued  to  its  base  and  made  their 
back  walls  of  its  sculptured  sides.  These  have  been  plucked 
away,  and,  relatively  speaking,  the  church  is  fairly  isolated. 
But  the  little  square  that  surrounds  it  is  deplorably  narrow, 
and  you  flatten  your  back  against  the  opposite  houses  in 
the  vain  attempt  to  stand  off  and  survey  the  towers.  There 
is,  however,  perhaps  an  advantage  in  being  forced  to  stand 
so  directly  under  them,  for  this  position  gives  you  an 
overwhelming  impression  of  their  height.  The  endless  up- 
ward reach  of  the  great  west  front,  the  clear,  silvery  tone  of 
its  surface,  the  way  three  or  four  magnificent  features  are 
made  to  occupy  its  serene  expanse,  its  simplicity,  majesty, 
and  dignity — these  things  crowd  upon  one's  sense  with  a 
force  that  makes  the  act  of  vision  seem  for  the  moment 
almost  all  of  life.  The  impressions  produced  by  architecture 
lend  themselves  as  little  to  interpretation  by  another  medium 
as  those  produced  by  music.  Certainly  there  is  an  inex- 
pressible harmony  in  the  fa(;ade  of  Chartres. 

The  doors  are  rather  low,  as  those  of  the  English  cathe- 
drals are  apt  to  be,  but  (standing  three  together)  are  set  in 
a  deep  framework  of  sculpture — rows  of  arching  grooves, 
filled  with  admirable  little  images,  standing  with  their  heels 
on  each  other's  heads.  The  church,  as  it  now  exists,  except 
the  northern  tower^  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  these  closely  packed  figures  are  full  of  the 
grotesqueness  of  the  period.  Above  the  triple  portals  is  a 
vast  round-topped  window,  in  three  divisions,  of  the  grand- 
est dimensions  and  the  stateliest  effect.  Above  this  window 
is  a  circular  aperture  of  huge  circumference,  with  a  double 
row  of  sculptured  spokes  radiating  from  its  centre  and  look- 
ing on  its  lofty  field  of  stone  as  expansive  and  symbolic  as 
if  it  were  the  wheel  of  Time  itself.  Higher  still  is  a  little 
gallery  with  a  delicate  balustrade,  supported  on  a  beautiful 
cornice  and  stretching  across  the  front  from  tower  to  tower; 
and  above  this  is  a  range  of  niched  statues  of  kings — fifteen, 
I  believe,  in  number.     Above  the  statues  is  a  gable,  with  an 


DESCRIPTION  73 

image  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  on  its  front  and  another  of 
Christ  on  its  apex. 

The  two  great  towers  of  the  cathedral  are  among  the 
noblest  of  their  kind.  They  rise  in  solid  simplicity  to  a 
height  as  great  as  the  eye  often  troubles  itself  to  travel,  and 
then  suddenly  they  begin  to  execute  a  magnificent  series  of 
feats  in  architectural  gymnastics.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  northern  spire,  which  is  a  late  creation,  dating  from  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  other  is  relatively  quiet;  but  its  com- 
panion is  a  sort  of  tapering  bouquet  of  sculptured  stone. 
Statues  and  buttresses,  gargoyles,  arabesques,  and  crockets 
pile  themselves  in  successive  stages  imtil  the  eye  loses  the 
sense  of  everything  but  a  sort  of  architectural  lacework. 
— Arranged  from  Portraits  of  Places  by  Henry  James. 

THE    WOODS    AND   THE    PACIFIC 

The  Bay  of  Monterey  has  been  compared  by  no  less  a  per- 
son than  General  Sherman  to  a  bent  fishing-hook ;  and  the 
comparison,  if  less  important  than  the  march  through  Geor- 
gia, still  shows  the  eye  of  a  soldier  for  topography.  Santa 
Cruz  sits  exposed  at  the  shank;  the  mouth  of  the  Salinas 
River  is  at  the  middle  of  the  bend,  and  Monterey  itself  is 
cosily  ensconced  beside  the  barb.  Thus  the  ancient  capital 
of  California  faces  across  the  bay,  while  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
though  hidden  by  low  hills  and  forest,  bombards  her  left 
flank  and  rear  with  never-dying  surf.  In  front  of  the  town, 
the  long  line  of  sea-beach  trends  north  and  northwest,  and 
then  westward  to  enclose  the  bay.  The  waves  which  lap  so 
quietly  about  the  jetties  of  Monterey  grow  louder  and  larger 
in  the  distance ;  you  can  see  the  breakers  leaping  high  and 
white  by  day ;  at  night,  the  outline  of  the  shore  is  traced  in 
transparent  silver  by  the  moonlight  and  the  flying  foam; 
and  from  all  round,  even  in  quiet  weather,  the  low,  distant, 
thrilling  roar  of  the  Pacific  hangs  over  the  coast  and  the 
adjacent  country  like  smoke  above  a  battle. 

These  long  beaches  are  enticing  to  the  idle  man.  It 
would  be  hard  to  find  a  walk  more  solitary  and  at  the  same 
time  more  exciting  to  the  mind.  Crowds  of  ducks  and  sea- 
gulls hover  over  the  sea.  Sandpipers  trot  in  and  out  by 
troops  after  the  retiring  waves,  trilling  together  in  a  cho- 
rus of  infinitesimal  song.     Strange  sea-tangles,  new  to  the 


74  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

European  eye,  the  bones  of  whales,  or  sometimes  a  whole 
whale's  carcase,  white  with  carrion  gulls  and  poisoning  the 
wind,  lie  scattered  here  and  there  along  the  sands.  The 
waves  come  in  slowly,  vast  and  green,  curve  their  translu- 
cent necks,  and  burst  with  a  surprising  uproar,  that  runs, 
waxing  and  waning,  up  and  down  the  long  key-board  of  the 
beach.  The  foam  of  these  great  ruins  mounts  in  an  instant 
to  the  ridge  of  the  sand  glacis,  swiftly  fleets  back  again, 
and  is  met  and  buried  by  the  next  breaker.  The  interest 
is  perpetually  fresh.  On  no  other  coast  that  I  know  shall 
you  enjoy,  in  calm,  sunny  weather,  such  a  spectacle  of 
Ocean's  greatness,  such  beauty  of  changing  color,  or  such 
degrees  of  thunder  in  the  sound. 

The  one  common  note  of  all  this  country  is  the  haunting 
presence  of  the  ocean.  A  great  faint  sound  of  breakers 
follows  you  high  up  into  the  inland  canons;  the  roar  of 
water  dwells  in  the  clean,  empty  rooms  of  Monterey  as  in 
a  shell  upon  the  chimney ;  go  where  you  will,  you  have  but  to 
pause  and  listen  to  hear  the  voice  of  the  Pacific.  You  pass 
out  of  the  town  to  the  southwest,  and  mount  the  hill  among 
pine-woods.  Glade,  thicket,  and  grove  surround  you.  You 
foHow  winding,  sandy  tracks  that  lead  nowhither.  You  see 
a  deer;  a  multitude  of  quail  arises.  But  the  sound  of  the 
sea  still  follows  you  as  you  advance,  like  that  of  wind  among 
the  trees,  only  harsher  and  stranger  to  the  ear;  and  when 
at  length  you  gain  the  summit,  out  breaks  on  every  hand  and 
with  freshened  vigor  that  same  unending,  distant,  whisper- 
ing rumble  of  the  ocean;  for  now  you  are  on  the  top  of 
Monterey  peninsula,  and  the  noise  no  longer  only  mounts  to 
you  from  behind  along  the  beach  toward  Santa  Cruz,  but 
from  your  right  also,  round  by  Chinatown  and  Pinos  light- 
house, and  from  down  before  you  to  the  right  of  the  Carmello 
River.  The  whole  woodland  is  begirt  with  thundering 
surges.  The  silence  that  immediately  surrounds  you  where 
you  stand  is  not  so  much  broken  as  it  is  haunted  by  this 
distant,  circling  rumor.  It  sets  your  senses  upon  edge;  you 
strain  your  attention;  you  are  clearly  and  unusually  con- 
scious of  sm;ill  sounds  near  at  hand ;  you  walk  listening  like 
an  Indian  hunter;  and  that  voice  of  the  Pacific  is  a  sort  of 
disquieting  company  to  you  in  your  walk.      .      .      . 

The  woods  and  the  Pacific  rule  between  them  the  climate 
of  this  seaboard  region.     On  the  streets  of  Monterey,  when 


DESCRIPTION  75 

the  air  does  not  smell  salt  from  tlie  one^  it  will  be  blowing 
perfumed  from  the  resinous  tree-tops  of  the  other.  For 
days  together  a  hot,  dry  air  will  overhang  the  town,  close  as 
from  an  oven,  yet  healthful  and  aromatic  in  the  nostrils. 
The  cause  is  not  far  to  seek,  for  the  woods  are  afire,  and  the 
hot  wind  is  blowing  from  the  hills.  These  fires  are  one  of 
the  great  dangers  of  California.  I  have  seen  from  Monterey 
as  many  as  three  at  the  same  time,  by  day  a  cloud  of  smoke, 
by  niglit  a  red  coal  of  conflagration  in  the  distance.  A  little 
thing  will  start  them,  and  if  the  wind  be  favorable  they 
gallop  over  miles  of  country  faster  than  a  horse.  The  in- 
habitants must  turn  out  and  work  like  demons,  for  it  is  not 
only  the  pleasant  groves  that  are  destroyed ;  the  climate  and 
the  soil  are  equally  at  stake,  and  these  fires  prevent  the  rains 
of  the  next  winter  and  dry  up  perennial  fountains.  Cali- 
fornia has  been  a  land  of  promise  in  its  time,  like  Palestine ; 
but  if  the  woods  continue  so  swiftly  to  perish,  it  may  be- 
come, like  Palestine,  a  land  of  desolation.     .     .     . 

But  it  is  the  Pacific  that  exercises  the  most  direct  and 
obvious  power  upon  the  climate.  At  sunset,  for  months  to- 
gether, vast,  wet,  melancholy  fogs  arise  and  come  shoreward 
from  the  ocean.  From  the  hill-top  above  Monterey  the  scene 
is  often  noble,  although  it  is  always  sad.  The  upper  air  is 
still  bright  with  sunlight;  a  glow  still  rests  upon  the  Gabe- 
lano  Peak ;  but  the  fogs  are  in  possession  of  the  lower  levels ; 
they  crawl  in  scarves  among  the  sand-hills ;  they  float,  a  little 
higher,  in  clouds  of  a  gigantic  size  and  often  of  a  wild  con- 
figuration ;  to  the  south,  where  they  have  struck  the  seaward 
shoulder  of  the  mountains  of  Santa  Lucia,  they  double  back 
and  spire  up  skyward  like  smoke.  Where  their  shadow 
touches,  color  dies  out  of  the  world.  The  air  grows  chill 
and  deadly  as  they  advance.  The  trade-wind  freshens,  the 
trees  begin  to  sigh,  and  all  the  windmills  of  Monterey  are 
whirling  and  creaking  and  filling  their  cisterns  with  the 
brackish  water  of  the  sands.  It  takes  but  a  little  while  till 
the  invasion  is  complete.  The  sea,  in  its  lighter  order,  has 
submerged  the  earth.  Monterey  is  curtained  in  for  the  night 
in  thick,  wet,  salt,  and  frigid  clouds,  so  to  remain  till  day 
returns ;  and  before  the  sun's  rays  they  slowly  disperse  and 
retreat  in  broken  squadrons  to  the  bosom  of  the  sea.  And 
yet  often  when  the  fog  is  thickest  and  most  chill,  a  few  steps 
out  of  the  town  and  up  the  slope,  the  night  will  be  dry  and 


76  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

warm  and  full  of  inland  perfume. — Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son in  Across  the  Plains. 

The  material  of  description,  as  is  evident  in  the  fore- 
going examples,  consists  of  objects  which  affect  one  of 
the  five  senses — sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste,  touch — and 
objects  which  appeal  through  the  senses  to  the  emotions. 
Young  writers  are  so  likely  to  neglect  one  or  more  of  these 
sources  of  material  that  a  tabulation  is  useful : 

1.  Objects  whicli  affect  the  senses: 

a.  Sight:  light,  color,  form,  objects  in  motion. 

b.  Hearing:  sound. 

c.  Smell:  odor. 

d.  Taste:  flavor. 

e.  Toucli:  sensations  of  heat  and  cold,  dryness  and 

wetness,  rouglmess  and   smoothness,    hardness 
and  softness,  movements  of  wind  and  water. 

2.  Objects   whicli,  through  the   senses,  affect  such  emo- 

tions as 

a.  Fear. 

b.  Awe. 

c.  Affection. 

Sight:  Color  and  form  are  noted  in  such  general  terms 
as  "a  yellow  oval  box,"  but  the  picture  is  made  more  vivid 
by  exact  words,  "a  straw-colored  oval  paste-board  hat- 
box."  The  examples  on  pages  67  to  75  contain  so 
many  references  to  light,  color,  and  form  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  point  them  out.  Stevenson,  in  The  Woods 
and  the  Pacific,  often  mentions  variations  of  light  and 
color : 

You  can  see  the  breakers  leaping  high  and  white  by  day; 
at  night  tlie  outHne  of  tlir  shore  is  traced  in  transparent 
silver  by  the  moonliglit  and  the  flying  foam. 


DESCRIPTION  77 

In  the  same  extract  passages  which  describe  forms  occur 
every  few  hnes ;  the  comparison  of  the  Bay  of  Monterey 
to  a  bent  fishing-hook  is  one  of  a  hundred.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  Cathedral  of  Chartrcs  deals  almost  wholly 
with  color  and  form,  especially  form. 

Objects  in  motion  are  important  because,  catching  the 
eye  more  quickly  than  objects  at  rest,  they  are  more 
prominent  in  the  impression  of  a  scene.  Then,  too, 
though  a  picture  has  the  advantage  of  language  in  rep- 
resenting objects  at  rest,  language  may  have  the  advan- 
tage in  conveying  an  idea  of  motion,  and  it  should  be 
employed,  when  possible,  in  the  work  to  which  it  is  spe- 
cially adapted.  The  selection.  The  Woods  and  the  Pa- 
cific, is  crowded  with  references  to  objects  in  motion — 
ducks  and  gulls  hovering  over  the  sea,  sandpipers  trot- 
ting in  and  out,  waves  rolling  up  the  beach,  quail  rising, 
fire  sweeping  througli  the  forest,  fogs  crawling  along 
the  sand-hills,  windmills  whirling. 

Hearing :  Just  as  a  picture  has  the  advantage  of  words 
in  conveying  an  idea  of  sights,  so  words  have  the  advan- 
tage in  conveying  an  idea  of  sounds;  and  when  sounds 
contribute  to  the  total  impression  of  any  scene,  there  is 
an  unusual  chance  to  make  the  description  effective. 
Sounds  arc  mentioned  in  The  Van  Tassel  Farm;  and  in 
The  Woods  and  the  Pacific  they  are  the  chief  subject  of 
the  paragraph  beginning  "The  one  common  note,"  page 
74.  A  striking  example  is  the  following  passage  from  a 
description  of  St.  Mark's  Church  in  Venice: 

Round  the  whole  square  in  front  of  the  church  tliere  is 
almost  a  continuous  line  of  cafes^  where  the  idle  Venetians 
of  the  middle  classes  lounge  and  read  empty  journals;  in  its 
centre  the  Austrian  bands  play  during  the  time  of  vespers. 


78  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

their  martini  music  jarring  witli  the  organ  notes — the  march 
drowning  the  iniscrere,  and  the  sulKn  crowd  thickening 
round  them — a  crowd  whicli,  if  it  had  its  will,  would  stiletto 
every  soldier  that  pipes  to  it.  And  in  the  recesses  of  the 
porches,  all  day  long,  knots  of  men  of  the  lowest  classes, 
unemployed  and  listless,  lie  basking  in  the  sun  like  lizards; 
and  unregarded  children, — every  heav}^  glance  of  their 
young  eyes  full  of  desiieration  and  stony  depravity,  and  their 
throats  hoarse  with  cursing, — gamble  and  fight  and  snarl 
and  sleep,  hour  after  hour,  clasliing  their  bruised  centesimi 
upon  the  marble  ledges  of  the  church  porch.  And  the  images 
of  Christ  and  his  angels  look  down  upon  it  continually. — 
John   Ruskin  in   The  Stones  of  Venice. 

Smell:  In  conveying  the  idea  of  odors  as  well  as  of 
sounds,  words  succeed  where  a  picture  wholly  fails;  and 
on  the  principle  of  using  language  in  tlie  work  for  which 
it  is  specially  fitted,  odors  are  important  in  description. 
Note,  for  instance,  the  touches  in  The  Woods  and  the 
Pacific : 

A  whole  whale's  carcase  poisoning  the  wind 

When  the  air  does  not  smell  salt  from  the  one,  it  will 
be  blowing  perfumed  from  tlie  resinous  tree-tops  of  the 
other. 

Healthful  and  aromatic  in  the  nostrils 


The  night  will  be  dry  and  warm  and  full  of  inland  per- 
fume. 

Another  example  is  the  following  paragraphs  from  an 
account  of  Paris,  in  George  du  Maurier's  Peter  Ibbetson: 


There  were  whole  streets — and  these  by  no  means  the 
least  fascinating  and  romantic — where  the  unwritten  do- 
mestic records  of  every  house  were  afloat  in  the  air  outside 
it — records  not  all  savory  or  sweet,  but  always  full  of  inter- 
est and  charm! 


DESCEIPTIOIJ"  79 

One  knew  at  a  sniff  as  one  passed  a  parte  cocJiere  what 
kind  of  people  lived  behind  and  above ;  what  they  ate  and 
what  tliey  drank^  and  what  their  trade  was ;  whether  they  did 
their  washing  at  home,  and  burned  tallow  or  wax,  and  mixed 
chicory  witli  their  coffee,  and  were  over-fond  of  Gruyere 
cheese — the  biggest,  cheapest,  plainest,  and  most  formidable 
cheese  in  the  world;  whether  they  fried  with  oil  or  butter, 
and  liked  their  omelets  overdone,  and  garlic  in  their  salad, 
and  sipped  black-currant  brandy  or  anisette  as  a  liqueur ; 
and  were  overrun  with  mice,  and  used  cats  or  mouse-traps  to 
get  rid  of  them,  or  neither ;  and  bought  violets,  or  pinks,  or 
gillyflowers  in  season,  and  kept  them  too  long;  and  fasted  on 
Friday  with  red  or  white  beans,  or  lentils,  or  had  a  dispensa- 
tion from  the  Pope — or,  haply,  even  dispensed  with  the 
Pope's  dispensation. 

Taste:  The  idea  of  flavors,  too,  may  often  be  con- 
veyed by  words  better  than  by  pictures.  An  example 
may  be  found  in  the  latter  part  of  The  Van  Tassel 
Farm,  and  another  in  the  following  passage  from 
Charles  Lever's  Charles  O^M alley : 

I  often  looked  back  to  that  day's  dinner  with  a  most  heart- 
yearning  sensation — a  turbot  as  big  as  the  Waterloo  shield, 
a  sirloin  that  seemed  cut  from  the  sides  of  a  rhinoceros,  a 
sauce-boat  that  contained  an  oyster-bed.  There  was  a  turkey 
which  singly  would  have  formed  the  main  army  of  a  French 
dinner,  doing  mere  outpost  duty — flanked  by  a  picket  of 
ham  and  a  detached  squadron  of  chickens,  carefully  am- 
bushed in  a  forest  of  greens ;  potatoes  not  disguised  a  la 
maitre  d'hotel  and  tortured  to  resemble  bad  macaroni,  but 
piled  like  shot  in  an  ordnance  yard,  were  posted  at  different 
quarters ;  while  massive  decanters  of  port  and  sherry  stood 
proudly  up  like  standard-bearers  amid  the  goodly  array. 

Touch:  References  to  objects  which  affect  the  sense 
of  touch  are  scattered  throughout  The  Woods  and  the 
Pacific : 


80  ElffiLISH    COMPOSITION 

For  daj's  together  a  hot^  dry  air  will  overhang  the  town, 
close  as  from  an  oven. 

The  hot  wind  is  blowing  from  the  liills. 

For  months  together  vast,  wet,  milancholy  fogs  arise. 

The  air  grows  chill  and  deadly  as  they  advance. 

The  trade-wind  freshens. 

^lonterey  is  curtained  in  for  the  night  in  thick,  wet,  salt, 
and  frigid  clouds. 

And  yet  often  when  the  fog  is  thickest  and  most  chill, 
a  few  steps  out  of  the  town  and  uj)  the  slojie,  the  night  will 
be  dry  and  warm  and  full  of  inland  jierfume. 

From  these  examples  it  is  evident  that  a  description 
should,  if  possible,  bring  in  objects  that  affect  more  than 
one  of  the  senses.  Beginners  are  likely  to  mention  merely 
the  things  they  see ;  they  forget  that  a  description  may 
be  very  vivid,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  sight  plays  but  a 
small  part  in  it.  To  illustrate — in  the  passages  of  de- 
scription in  the  following  narrative  the  main  elements  are 
sounds,  odors,  and  sensations  from  the  touch : 

TOOMAl's    RIDE    ON     KALA    NAG 

There  was  one  blast  of  furious  trumpeting  from  the  lines, 
and  then  the  silence  shut  down  on  everything,  and  Kala  Nag 
began  to  move.  Sometimes  a  tuft  of  high  grass  washed 
along  his  sides  as  a  wave  washes  along  the  sides  of  a  ship, 
and  sometimes  a  cluster  of  wild-pejipcr  vines  would  scrajje 
along  his  back^  or  a  bamboo  would  creak  where  his  shoulder 
touclied  it;  but  between  those  times  he  moved  absolutely 
without  any  sound,  drifting  through  the  thick  Garo  forest 
as  thougli  it  had  been  smoke.  He  was  going  uphill,  but 
though  Little  Toomai  watched  the  stars  in  the  rifts  of  the 
trees,  he  could  not  tell  in  what  direction. 

Then  Kala  Nag  reached  the  crest  of  the  ascent  and 
stopped  for  a  minute,  and  Little  Toomai  could  see  the  tops  of 
the  trees  lying  all  speckled  and  furry  under  the  moonlight 
for  miles  and  miles,  and  the  blue-white  mist  over  the  river 


DESCRIPTION"  81 

in  the  hollow.  Toomai  leaned  forward  and  looked,  and  he 
felt  that  the  forest  was  awake  below  him — awake  and  alive 
and  crowded.  A  big  brown  fruit-eating  bat  brushed  past 
his  ear;  a  porcupine's  quills  rattled  in  the  thicket,  and  in 
the  darkness  between  the  tree-stems  he  heard  a  hog-bear 
digging  hard  in  the  moist  warm  earth,  and  snuffing  as  it 
digged. 

Then  the  branches  closed  over  his  head  again,  and  Kala 
Nag  began  to  go  down  into  the  valley — not  quietly  this  time, 
but  as  a  runaway  gun  goes  down  a  steep  bank — in  one  rush. 
The  huge  limbs  moved  as  steady  as  pistons,  eight  feet  to  each 
stride,  and  the  wrinkled  skin  of  the  elbow-points  rustled. 
The  undergrowth  on  each  side  of  him  ripped  with  a  noise 
like  torn  canvas,  and  the  saplings  that  he  heaved  away  right 
and  left  with  his  shoulders  sprang  back  again  and  banged 
him  on  the  flank,  and  great  trails  of  creepers,  all  matted 
together,  hung  from  his  tusks  as  he  threw  his  head  from  side 
to  side  and  plowed  out  his  pathway.  Then  Little  Toomai 
laid  himself  down  close  to  the  great  neck,  lest  a  swinging 
bough  should  sweep  him  to  the  ground,  and  he  wished  that 
he  were  back  in  the  lines  again. 

The  grass  began  to  get  squashy,  and  Kala  Nag's  feet 
sucked  and  squelched  as  he  put  them  down,  and  the  night 
mist  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley  chilled  Little  Toomai.  There 
was  a  splash  and  a  trample,  and  the  rush  of  running  water, 
and  Kala  Nag  strode  through  the  bed  of  a  river,  feeling  his 
way  at  each  step.  Above  the  noise  of  the  water,  as  it  swirled 
round  the  elephant's  legs.  Little  Toomai  could  hear  more 
splashing  and  some  trumpeting  both  upstream  and  down- 
great  grunts  and  angry  snortings,  and  all  tlie  mist  about  him 
seemed  to  be  full  of  rolling  wavy  shadows. — Rudyard  Kip- 
ling in  The  Jungle  Book. 


The  emotions  which  may  be  stirred  are  too  various  for 
enumeration  and  classification,  but  fear  and  affection 
may  be  taken  as  typical.  In  the  following  description 
from  Poe's  Foil  of  the  House  of  Usher  the  fact  that  the 
building  and  its  surroundings  awakened  the  emotion  of 
dread  is  fully  as  significant,  as  useful  in  conveying  an 


82  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

impression  of  the  place,  as  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  masonry: 

When  I  again  uplifted  my  eyes  to  the  house  itself,  from 
its  image  in  the  jjooI,  there  grew  in  my  mind  a  strange  fancy 
— a  fancy  so  ridiculous,  indeed,  that  I  but  mention  it  to  sliow 
the  vivid  force  of  the  sensations  which  oppressed  me.  I  had 
so  worked  upon  my  imagination  as  really  to  believe  that 
about  the  whole  mansion  and  domain  tliere  hung  an  atmos- 
phere peculiar  to  themselves  and  their  immediate  vicinity — 
an  atmosphere  whicli  had  no  affinity  witli  the  air  of  heaven, 
but  which  liad  reeked  up  from  the  decayed  trees  and  the 
gray  wall  and  the  silent  tarn — a  pestilent  and  mystic  vapor, 
dull,  sluggisli,  faintly  discernible,  and  leaden-hued. 

Shaking  off  from  my  spirit  what  must  have  been  a  dream, 
I  scanned  more  narrowly  tlie  real  aspect  of  the  building. 
Its  principal  feature  seemed  to  be  that  of  excessive  antiquity. 
The  discoloration  of  ages  liad  been  great.  Minute  fungi 
overspread  tlie  whole  exterior,  hanging  in  a  fine  tangled  web- 
work  from  the  eaves.  Yet  all  this  was  apart  from  any 
extraordinary  dilapidation.  No  portion  of  the  masonry 
had  fallen ;  and  there  appeared  to  be  a  wild  inconsistency 
between  its  still  perfect  adaptation  of  parts  and  the  crum- 
bling condition  of  the  individual  stones.  In  this  there  was 
much  that  reminded  me  of  the  specious  totality  of  old  wood- 
work which  has  rotted  for  long  years  in  some  neglected 
vault,  with  no  disturbance  from  the  breath  of  the  external 
air.  Beyond  tliis  indication  of  extensive  decay,  however,  the 
fabric  gave  little  token  of  instability.  Perhaps  the  eye  of  a 
scrutinizing  observer  might  have  discovered  a  barely  per- 
ceptible fissure,  which,  extending  from  the  roof  of  the 
building  in  front,  made  its  way  down  the  wall  in  a  zig- 
zag direction  until  it  became  lost  in  the  sullen  waters  of 
the  tarn. 

In  parts  of  The  Woods  and  the  Pacific  there  is  a  touch 
of  melancholy : 

At  sunset,  for  months  together,  vast,  wet,  melancholy  fogs 
arise  and  come  shoreward  from  the  ocean. 


DESCRIPTION"  83 

The  following  passage  is  an  example  of  appeal  to  the 
affection : 

DREAMTHORP 

This  place  suits  my  whim^  and  I  like  it  better  year  after 
year.  As  with  everything  else,  since  I  began  to  love  it  I 
find  it  gradually  growing  beautiful.  Dreamthorp — a  castle, 
a  chapel,  a  lake,  a  straggling  strip  of  gray  houses,  with  a 
blue  film  of  smoke  over  all — lies  embosomed  in  emerald. 
Summer,  with  its  daisies,  runs  up  to  every  cottage  door. 
From  the  little  height  where  I  am  now  sitting  I  see  it  be- 
neath me.  Nothing  could  be  more  peaceful.  The  wind  and 
the  birds  fly  over  it.  A  passing  sunbeam  makes  brilliant  a 
white  gable-end,  and  brings  out  the  colors  of  the  blossomed 
apple-tree  beyond,  and  disappears.  I  see  figures  in  the 
street,  but  hear  them  not.  The  hands  on  the  church  clock 
seem  always  pointing  to  one  hour.  Time  has  fallen  asleep 
in  the  afternoon  sunshine.  I  make  a  frame  of  my  fingers 
and  look  at  my  picture.  On  the  walls  of  the  next  Academy's 
exhibition  will  hang  nothing  half  so  beautiful ! — Alexander 
Smith  in  Di-eamtJwrp. 

21.  Unity  in  Description. — In  description,  as  in  narra- 
tion, unity  is  secured  by  seizing  significant  details,  the 
essentials.  Suppose  the  subject  is  the  prospect  from  an 
open  window  in  May.  One  notes  at  a  glance  the  fresh 
foliage  and  the  new  grass,  hears  the  shouts  of  children 
at  play  and  the  rattle  of  passing  wagons,  catches  the 
fragrance  of  apple-blossoms  and  receives  some  impres- 
sion from  many  other  sights  and  sounds  and  smells.  To 
recount  these  myriads  of  small  things  is  impossible :  one 
must  present  a  unified  conception,  not  by  complete 
enumeration  but  by  judicious  selection. 

In  the  first  place  there  must  be  enough  matter  to  make 
the  picture  fairly  clear.  The  following  examples  show 
how  the  addition  of  details  will  transform  a  meager, 
vague  description  into  one  that  is  pretty  definite: 


84 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


A  big  building. 


A  small  person. 


The  room,  in  wliich  there 
was  an  odor  of  whiskey,  con- 
tained three  children  asleep 
in  bed  and  a  woman  also 
asleep  in  a  chair. 


A  big  unpainted  barn 
with  a  wide  double  door. 

A  little,  dried-up  old 
woman,  dressed  in  a  long, 
shabby  black  cloak. 

She  conducted  me  to  an 
apartment  where  three  chil- 
dren were  asleep  in  three 
tiny  beds.  A  heated  stove 
made  the  air  of  this  room 
oppressive;  and,  to  mend 
matters,  it  was  scented  with 
an  odor  rather  strong  than 
delicate:  a  perfume,  indeed, 
altogether  surprising  and 
unexpected  uflder  the  cir- 
cumstances, being  like  the 
combination  of  smoke  with 
some  spirituous  essence — a 
smell,  in  short,  of  whiskey. 

Beside  a  table,  on  which 
flared  the  remnant  of  a 
candle  guttering  to  waste  in 
the  socket,  a  coarse  woman, 
heterogeneously  clad  in  a 
broad-striped,  showy  silk 
dress  and  a  stuff  apron,  sat 
in  a  chair  fast  asleep.  To 
complete  the  picture,  and 
leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  state 
of  matters,  a  bottle  and  an 
empty  glass  stood  at  the 
sleeping  beauty's  elbow. — 
Charlotte  Bronte  in  J'il- 
lette. 


He  was  a  man  about  sixty 
years  old,  strongly  built,  and 
with    a    harsh    countenance. 


He  was  perhaps  sixty 
years  old ;  yet  his  brow  was 
not  much  furrowed,  and  his 


DESCRIPTION  85 

He  was    clad   like   a  fisher-      jet-black  hair  was  only  griz- 
man.  zled,   not    whitened,   by   the 

advance  of  age.  All  his 
motions  spoke  strength  un- 
abated; and,  though  rather 
undersized,  he  had  very 
broad  shoulders,  was  square- 
made,  thin-flanked,  and  ap- 
parently combined  in  his 
frame  muscular  strength 
and  activity;  the  last  some- 
what impaired  perhaps  by 
years,  but  the  first  remain- 
ing in  full  vigor.  A  hard 
and  harsh  countenance — 
eyes  far  sunk  under  pro- 
jecting eyebrows,  which 
were  grizzled  like  his  hair — 
a  wide  mouth,  furnished 
from  ear  to  ear  with  a  range 
of  unimpaired  teeth,  of  un- 
common whiteness,  and  a 
size  and  breadth  which 
might  have  become  the  jaws 
of  an  ogre,  completed  this 
delightful  portrait.  He  was 
clad  like  a  fisherman,  in 
jacket  and  trousers  of  the 
blue  cloth  commonly  used  by 
seamen,  and  had  a  Dutch 
case-knife,  like  that  of  a 
Hamburg  skipper,  stuck  into 
a  broad  buff  belt.— Sir  Wal- 
ter  Scott   in  Redgauntlet. 

The  fault  of  leaving  out  necessary  facts  Is,  however, 
less  common  than  that  of  putting  in  the  unnecessar3^  In 
the  following  examples  the  descriptions  in  the  first  col- 
umn are  so  minute  that  unless  one  reads  with  great  care 
one  becomes  bewildered  as  to  the  precise  relation  of  parts ; 


86 


EKGLISH   COMPOSITION 


and  when  a  description  contains  matter  that  adds  neither 
to  the  clearness  nor  interest,  it  lacks  unity.  The  brief 
descriptions  in  the  second  column  present  a  clearer 
picture. 


AN    OLD-FASHIONED    HOUSE 


The  dwelling  is  a  struc- 
ture of  wood,  about  forty 
feet  long  and  thirty-five 
deep.  The  body  of  the  house 
is  painted  yellow,  the  trim- 
mings are  white,  the  blinds 
green.  The  front  door, 
which  is  reached  by  two 
stone  steps  rising  from  the 
gravel  walk,  is  seven  feet 
high  by  four  wide,  panelled 
in  white  and  yellow.  It  is 
ornamented  with  a  large 
brass  knocker.  Over  the 
door  juts  a  narrow  wooden 
canopy  supported  by  brack- 
ets. To  the  right  of  the 
door  is  a  bay-window  con- 
sisting of  a  half-hexagon. 
Looking  in,  one  can  see 
shelves  of  plants  in  bloom, 
geraniums,  roses,  and  a  cal- 
la  or  two.  To  the  left  of 
the  door  are  two  ordinary 
windows.  Within  one  of 
them  hangs  a  cage  contain- 
ing a  canary;  within  the 
other  is  a  table  on  which  lie 
a  few  books  scattered  round 
a  tall  brass  lamp.  On  the 
second  floor  are  five  win- 
dows, one  over  each  of  the 
downstairs  windows  and  one 
over  tlie  door.  All  five  are 
shaded    with    white    muslin. 


The  dwelling  is  a  small 
two-story  yellow  house  with 
white  trimmings  and  green 
blinds.  Over  the  front  door 
is  a  little  wooden  canopy,  on 
the  right  a  bay-window  filled 
with  roses  and  geraniums. 
The  slope  of  the  roof  is 
broken  by  three  dormer  win- 
dows; and  from  the  middle 
of  the  peak  rises  a  square 
red  chimney. 


DESCRIPTION  8'? 

Under  the  eaves,  above  these 
windows,  are  brackets  simi- 
lar in  design  to  those  under 
the  canopy,  but  larger.  Pro- 
jecting from  the  slope  of 
the  front  roof  are  three 
dormer  windows  with  green 
shades.  Directly  from  the 
peak  of  the  roof,  in  the 
middle,  rises  a  heavy,  square, 
red  brick  chimney.  The  roof 
itself  has  weathered  gray, 
with  here  and  there  a  lighter 
patch,  where  some  new  shin- 
gles have  been  put  in. 

Although  the  subjects  of  the  following  descriptions 
are  not  the  same,  they  are  so  much  alike  that  a  compari- 
son fairly  shows  the  superiority  of  the  shorter  piece: 

A    CLERGYMAN 

The    bishop   is    a   heavily  Mr.    Harding   is   a    small 

built    man,    about    five    feet  man,  now   verging  on   sixty 

seven  inches  tall  and  weigh-  years,    but    bearing    few   of 

ing  one  hundred  and  eighty  the  signs  of  age.      His  hair 

pounds.    He  is  seventy  years  is    rather    grizzled,    though 

old,  and  he  looks  every  day  not   gray;    his    eye    is    very 

of  his  age,  for  what  hair  is  mild,   but   clear    and   bright, 

left   about    his   temples    and  though    the    double    glasses 

the   narrow    strip    of    beard  which     are     held     swinging 

running    down    in    front    of  from  his  hand,  unless  when 

his  ears  are  perfectly  white.  fixed    upon    his    nose,    show 

Once  they  must  have  been  a  that  time  has  told  upon  his 

light    brown,    to    match    his  sight ;  his  hands  are  delicate- 

now    bushy,     grizzled     eye-  ly  white,  and  both  hands  and 

brows.        His      forehead     is  feet  are  small.      He    always 

deeply  furrowed,  and  about  wears    a    black    frock    coat, 

his  eyes  are  strongly  marked  black      knee-breeches,      and 

crow's-feet.    The  eyes  them-  black  gaiters,  and  somewhat 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


selves,  screened  a  little  by 
gold-rimmed  glasses,  are 
heavy-lidded  and  show  that 
tendency  to  water  that  is 
characteristic  of  advancing 
age.  The  nose,  imperious 
and  aquiline,  is  too  full  and 
warmly  colored  to  belong  to 
an  ascetic.  Evidently  the 
bishop  has  not  given  all  his 
time  to  mortifying  the  flesh. 
The  mouth,  as  the  deep 
wrinkles  drawn  from  the 
corners  indicate,  was  once 
firm  and  masterful ;  but  the 
teeth,  touched  with  discolor- 
ation, and  the  relaxed  lips 
are  proof  that  the  early  en- 
ergy and  decision  are  nearly 
exhausted.  On  the  jaws  the 
cheeks  form  almost  pendant 
jowls,  like  those  of  a  mas- 
tiff. 

The  bishop  is  dressed 
with  scrupulous  care,  clerical 
collar,  waistcoat  buttoned 
close  round  his  throat,  long 
black  coat,  black  knee- 
breeches,  silk  stockings,  and 
cloth  gaiters.  Across  his 
breast  runs  a  tliick  gold 
chain,  from  which  depends 
a  gold  cross  about  three 
inches  high.  The  hands, 
once  strong  and  muscular, 
are  becoming  tremulous — a 
feebleness  that  comes  out  in 
the  bishop's  neat  manuscript. 
On  one  finger  is  a  heavy 
ring,  set  with  a  dark  green 
signet. 

As  the  bishop  walks  abroad 


scandalizes  some  of  his 
more  hyperclerical  brethren 
by  a  black  neck-handker- 
chief. —  Anthony  Trol- 
LOPE  in  The  Warden. 


DESCRIPTION  89 

his  step  is  still  firm,  except 
when  he  is  much  worn  at 
the  end  of  an  exhausting 
day.  When  he  speaks,  his 
voice  is  still  deep  and  well- 
controlled,  except  now  and 
then,  when  he  is  wrought  by 
unusual  emotion,  his  rolling 
bass  breaks  into  a  harsh 
treble.  For  this  reason,  per- 
haps, he  preaches  with  less 
fire  than  in  years  gone  by, 
and  confines  himself  to  top- 
ics that  do  not  call  for  so 
high  a  pitch  of  feeling. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems,  indeed,  is  to  put 
in  just  enough  details  to  make  the  picture  vivid,  but  not 
enough  to  confuse  the  reader.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down, 
except  to  acquire  skill  through  observation  and  practice. 
In  general,  however,  unless  there  is  special  reason  for 
elaborate  description,  the  safer  plan  is  to  select  a  few 
striking  features.  The  following  are  examples  of  this 
method : 

GEORGE    THE    SECOND 

The  monarch  is  a  little,  keen,  fresh-colored  old  man,  with 
very  protruding  eyes,  attired  in  plain,  old-fashioned,  snuff- 
colored  clothes  and  brown  stockings,  his  only  ornament  the 
blue  ribbon  of  his  Order  of  the  Garter.  He  speaks  in  a  Ger- 
man accent,  but  with  ease,  shrewdness,  and  simplicity. — 
William  Makepeace  Thackeray  in  The  Virginians. 

THE    DEAD    SEA 

I  came  near  to  those  waters  of  Death;  they  stretched 
deeply  into  the  southern  desert,  and  before  me  and  all 
around,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  follow,  blank  hills  piled  high 
over  hills,  pale,  yellow,  and  naked,  walled  up  in  her  tomb 


90  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

forever  the  dead  and  damned  Gomorrah.  There  was  no  fly 
tliat  hummed  in  the  forbidden  air,  but  instead  a  deep  still- 
ness ;  no  grass  grew  from  the  earth ;  no  weed  jaeered  through 
the  void  sand;  but  in  mockery  of  all  life  there  were  trees 
borne  down  by  Jordan  in  some  ancient  flood,  and  these,  gro- 
tesquely planted  upon  the  forlorn  shore,  spread  out  their 
grim  skeleton  arms,  all  scorched  and  charred  to  blackness 
by  the  heats  of  the  long  silent  years. — Alexander  William 
KiNGLAKE   in  Eothen. 


ARDHONNEL 

Ardhonnel  is  an  exquisite  little  island.  There  is  just  room 
enough  upon  it  for  the  sturdy  little  castle,  where  the  great 
Campbells  lived  long  ago.  A  few  trees,  stately  in  form  and 
heavy  with  foliage,  stand  to  the  east  of  the  building,  and  the 
building  itself  is  covered  all  over  with  ivy.  In  the  trees 
there  dwells  a  colony  of  rooks,  and  in  the  ivy  an  owl.  These 
are  the  only  garrison  of  the  ancient  fortress  of  Argyll. — 
Arranged  from  A  Painter's  Camp  by  Philip  Gilbert 
Hamerton. 


What  has  already  been  said,  pages  33  to  35,  about 
superfluous  matter  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  a 
narrative  applies  equally  to  description.  The  following 
is  an  example  of  what  not  to  do : 

THE    view    from    THE    PALISADES 

There  are  many  interesting  places  about  New  York  City. 
Last  spring  I  spent  a  week  there.  I  visited  Coney  Island, 
the  Statue  of  Liberty,  Central  Park,  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  High  Bridge,  and  the  Stock  Exchange. 
The  Stock  Exchange,  of  which  my  uncle  is  a  member,  is 
exciting  and  noisy  on  a  busy  day.  Coney  Island  has  a 
fine  beach,  where  I  should  enjoy  bathing  in  warm  weather. 
I  was  taken  to  these  places  by  my  cousin  George,  who  is  two 
years  older  than  I.  He  has  two  grown-up  sisters,  and  his 
father  has  promised  him  an  automobile  when  he  is  ready  for 
college. 


pESCRIPTIOIf  91 

One  of  our  most  interesting  trips  was  to  take  a  ferry-boat 
across  the  Hudson^  and  tlien  a  trolley-car  which  carried  us 
nearly  to  the  tojD  of  the  Palisades.  A  short  walk  brought 
us  out  on  the  edge  of  the  cliff.  From  there  I  had  a  beautiful 
view  up  and  down  the  river.  To  the  north  I  saw  Spuyten 
Duyvil  and  back  of  it  the  hills  of  Westchester  County.  As 
my  eye  turned  south  I  saw  the  green  heights  of  Inwood,  on 
the  northern  tip  of  Manhattan  Island;  then  Fort  George, 
Grant's  Tomb,  the  dome  of  Columbia  College  Library,  and 
in  the  south  a  jumble  of  towers  and  tall  buildings  in  the 
smoke  and  haze  that  overhang  the  business  part  of  New 
York.  Immediately  in  front  of  me  was  the  broad  river, 
with  here  and  there  a  little  sailboat,  one  or  two  tugboats  with 
a  string  of  barges,  and  several  large  steamers.  The  ocean- 
going vessels  do  not  come  up  to  this  point. 

I  could  not  help  wishing  that  I  had  been  lucky  enough 
to  buy  Manhattan  Island  of  the  Indians  for  $24.  The  Tam- 
many Indians  would  now  charge  more  than  that  for  the  little 
piece  of  ground  on  which  their  wigwam  now  stands.  Hen- 
drik  Hudson  would  be  surprised  if  he  should  return  and  see 
the  changes  since  he  first  sailed  these  waters.  I  was  glad 
to  get  home  again,  for  I  like  my  own  village  better  than 
New  York. 


If  this  piece  is  intended  as  a  description  of  the  view 
from  the  Palisades,  the  first  paragraph  and  the  last  are 
superfluous ;  if  it  is  intended  to  describe  what  the  writer 
saw  while  visiting  New  York,  the  Palisades  get  too  large 
a  proportion  of  the  space. 

22.  Order  in  Description. — One  of  the  best  ways  to  ar- 
range material  in  description  is  first  to  present  the  whole 
object  in  a  brief  sketch,  or  outline,  and  then  to  fill  in  the 
details  according  to  some  regular  plan.  When  the  reader 
has  once  grasped  the  general  outline,  he  can  more  readily 
understand  the  relation  of  parts.  Using  this  method, 
Stevenson,  in  the  first  sentence  of  The  Woods  and  the 
Pacific,  gives  an  idea  of  the  Bay  of  Monterey  by  com- 


92  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

paring  it  to  a  fishing-hook.     In  the  following  additional 
examples  the  general  plan  is  printed  in  italies: 

napoleon's  military  plan 

The  capital  of  Spain  is  situated  in  a  sort  of  basin,  fanned 
by  a  semicircular  range  of  mountains,  which,  under  the 
different  denominations  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarama,  the 
Carpentanos  and  the  Sierra  de  Guadalaxara,  sweep  in  one 
unhroken  chain  from  east  to  west,  touching  the  Tagus  at 
eitlier  end  of  an  arcli^  of  wliich  that  river  is  the  chord.  All 
direct  communication  between  Madrid  and  P'rance,  or  be- 
tween the  former  and  the  northern  provinces  of  Spain,  nmst 
therefore  necessarily  pass  over  one  or  other  of  these  sierras, 
which  are  separated  from  the  great  range  of  the  Pyrenees 
by  the  valley  of  tlie  Ebro;  etc. — Sir  William  Francis  Pat- 
rick Napier  in  The  Ilisforij  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula. 

FRENCH  AMERICA 

French  America  had  two  heads — one  among  the  snows  of 
Canada,  and  one  among  the  cane-brakes  of  Louisiana;  one 
communicating  with  the  world  through  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  other  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These 
vital  points  were  feebly  connected  by  a  chain  of  military 
posts — slender,  and  often  interrupted — circling  through 
the  wilderness  nearly  three  thousand  miles.  Midway  be- 
tween Canada  and  Louisiana  lay  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  If 
the  English  should  seize  it,  they  would  sever  the  chain  of 
posts  and  cut  French  America  asunder.  If  the  French  held 
it,  and  entrenched  themselves  well  along  its  eastern  limits, 
they  would  shut  their  rivals  between  the  Alleghanies  and 
the  sea. — Francis  Parkman  in  Montcalm  and  JVoIfe. 


A  confined  triangle,  perhaps  fifty  miles  its  greatest  length 
and  thirty  its  greatest  breadth;  two  elevated  rocky  barriers 
meeting  at  an  angle;  three  j)rominent  mountains  command- 
ing the  plain- — Parnes,  Pentelicus,  and  Ilymcttus;  an  un- 
satisfactory soil;  some  streams,  not  always  full;  etc. — Car- 
dinal Newman  in  Historical  Sketches,  Volume  I. 


DESCKIPTION  93 


WESTMINSTER     ABBEY 


Westminster  Abbey  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  as  is, 
I  believe,  invariably  the  case  with  every  Catholic  church  of 
any  jjretension.  At  its  northern  end  are  two  towers,  and  at 
its  southern  is  the  celebrated  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  This 
chapel  is  an  addition,  which,  allowing  for  a  vast  difference 
in  the  scale,  resembles  in  its  general  appearance  a  school, 
or  vestry-room,  attached  to  the  end  of  one  of  our  own 
churches;  etc. — James  Fenimore  Cooper  in  Recollections 
of  Europe. 

Often  this  method  of  an  outline  may,  from  the  nature 
of  the  material,  not  be  available ;  but  whether  available 
or  not,  the  relations  of  details  will  be  clearer  if  they  are 
presented  according  to  some  such  regular  order  as  left 
to  right  or  top  to  bottom.  For  instance,  the  following 
description  of  a  face  begins  with  the  hair  and  ends  with 
the  chin : 

She  was  of  lofty  stature,  red-haired  (which  some  folks 
dislike),  but  with  comely  white  eyebrows,  a  very  slender 
transparent  nose,  and  elegantly  thin  lips,  covering  with  due 
astringency  a  treasure  of  pearls  beyond  price,  which,  as  her 
lover  would  have  it,  she  never  ostentatiously  displayed.  Her 
chin  was  somewhat  long,  with  what  I  should  have  simply 
called  a  sweet  dimple  in  it,  quite  proportionate. — Walter 
Savage  Landor  in  Imaginary  Conversations. 

The  Cathedral  of  Chartres,  page  71,  is  described 
from  base  to  roof;  the  old-fashioned  house,  86,  in  the 
same  way ;  the  bishop,  87,  from  the  head  down ;  and  the 
view  from  the  Palisades,  90,  from  north  to  south. 

If  the  whole  object  is  not  visible  from  a  single  point 
of  view  the  writer  may  pass  from  part  to  part  in  regular 
order;  he  may  describe  Broadway,  New  York,  by  tell- 


94  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

ing  in  proper  sequence  the  noticeable  things  between  the 
Battery  and  Central  Park.  In  the  description  of  Gore 
Place,  70,  the  order  is :  the  south  side  of  the  house,  the 
trees  about  the  house,  the  house  itself,  the  north  side,  the 
tract  across  the  road,  beginning  with  the  nearby  open 
field  and  ending  with  the  low  hills,  "a  mile  or  two  away 
beyond  the  river."  The  method  is  further  illustrated  in 
the  following  examples.  In  the  first  the  details  are  men- 
tioned as  they  appear  one  after  another ;  in  the  second 
the  object  is  described  first  from  a  distance  and  then 
from  nearer  at  hand : 

HARTHOVER  PLACE 

And  now  they  had  gone  three  miles  and  more,  and  came 
to  Sir  John's  lodge-gates.  Very  grand  lodges  they  were, 
with  very  grand  iron  gates,  and  stone  gate-posts,  and  on 
top  of  each  a  most  dreadful  bogy,  all  teeth,  horns,  and  tail, 
which  was  the  crest  wliich  Sir  John's  ancestors  wore  in  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses. 

They  walked  up  a  great  lime  avenue,  a  full  mile  long, 
and  between  their  stems  Tom  peeped  trembling  at  the  horns 
of  the  sleeping  deer,  which  stood  up  among  the  ferns.  Tom 
had  never  seen  such  enormous  trees,  and  as  he  looked  uji  he 
fancied  that  the  blue  sky  rested  on  their  heads.  But  lie 
was  puzzled  very  much  by  a  strange  murmuring  noise,  which 
followed  them  all  the  way.  So  much  puzzled,  that  at  last 
he  took  courage  to  ask  the  keeper  what  it  was.  The  keeper 
told  him  that  it  was  the  bees  about  the  lime-flowers. 

And  by  this  time  they  were  come  up  to  the  great  iron  gates 
in  front  of  the  house;  and  Tom  stared  through  them  at  the 
rhododendrons  and  azaleas,  which  were  all  in  flower;  and 
then  at  the  house  itself,  and  wondered  how  many  chimneys 
there  were  in  it,  and  how  long  ago  it  was  built,  and  what 
was  the  man's  name  that  built  it,  and  whether  he  got  much 
money  for  his  job. 

These  last  were  very  difficult  questions  to  answer.  For 
Harthover  had  been  built  at  ninety  diff'erent  times  and  in 
nineteen  diff'erent  styles,   and  looked  as   if   somebody   had 


DESCEIPTION  95 

built  a  whole  street  of  houses  of  every  imaginable  shape, 
and  then  stirred  them  together  with  a  spoon. — Arranged 
from  The  Water-Babies  by  Charles  Kingsley. 


THE   EAST 

And  this  is  how  I  see  the  East.  I  have  seen  its  secret 
places  and  have  looked  into  its  very  soul ;  but  now  I  see  it  al- 
ways from  a  small  boat,  a  high  outline  of  mountains,  blue 
and  afar  in  the  morning;  like  faint  mist  at  noon;  a  jagged 
wall  of  purple  at  sunset.  I  have  the  feel  of  the  oar  in 
my  hand,  the  vision  of  a  scorching  blue  sea  in  my  eyes. 
And  I  see  a  bay,  a  wide  bay,  smooth  as  glass  and  polished 
like  ice,  shimmering  in  the  dark.  A  red  light  burns  far 
oiF  upon  the  gloom  of  the  land,  and  the  night  is  soft  and 
warm.  We  drag  at  the  oars  with  aching  arms,  and  suddenly 
a  puff  of  wind,  a  puff  faint  and  tepid  and  laden  with  strange 
odors  of  blossoms,  of  aromatic  wood,  comes  out  of  the  still 
night — the  first  sigh  of  the  East  on  my  face.  That  I 
can  never  forget.  It  was  impalpable  and  enslaving,  like  a 
charm,  like  a  whispered  promise  of  mysterious  delight. — 
Joseph  Conrad  in  Youth. 


By  a  variation  of  the  same  method — the  narrative 
method  it  is  sometimes  called — the  object  itself  is  pre- 
sented as  in  motion,  and  the  details  are  brought  in  as  they 
successively  strike  the  eye.  One  of  the  best  known  ex- 
amples is  from  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake: 

Far  up  the  lengthen'd  lake  were  spied 
Four  darkening  specks  upon  the  tide. 
That,  slow  enlarging  on  the  view. 
Four  mann'd  and  masted  barges  grew, 
And,  bearing  downwards   from  Glengyle, 
Steer'd  full  upon  the  lonely  isle; 
The  point  of  Brianehoil  they  pass'd. 
And,  to  the  windward  as  they  cast. 
Against  the  sun  they  gave  to  shine 
The  bold  Sir  Roderick's  banner'd  Pine. 


96  ENGLISH    rOMl'OSITION" 

Nearer  and  nearer  as  tluy  bear. 

Spear,  pikes,  and  axes  flash  in  air. 

Now  might  you  see  the  tartans  brave, 

And  j)laids   and  plumage  dance  and  wave; 

Now  see  the  bonnets  sink  and  rise. 

As  his  tough  oar  the  rower  plies; 

See,  flasliing  at  each  sturdy  stroke. 

The  wave  ascending  into  smoke; 

See  the  proud  i)ipers  on  the  bow. 

And  mark  the  gaudy  streamers  flow 

From  their  loud  chanters  down,  and  sweep 

The  furrow'd  bosom  of  the  deep, 

As,  rushing  through  the  lake  amain, 

They  plied  the  ancient  Highland  strain. 

A  prose  example  of  the  same  device  is  found  in  Ste- 
venson's Master  of  Ballantrae.  Here  the  Master  is  men- 
tioned first  as  a  "passenger"  in  a  boat  which  is  coming 
toward  the  shore ;  then,  when  he  has  landed,  he  is  a  "tall, 
slender  figure  of  a  gentleman" ;  and  finally  he  is  near 
enough  to  show  the  cut  of  his  clothes : 

Captain  Crail  himself  was  steering,  a  thing  not  usual; 
by  his  side  there  sat  a  passenger;  and  the  men  gave  way 
with  difficulty,  being  hampered  with  near  upon  half  a  dozen 
portmanteaus,  great  and  small.  But  the  business  of  landing 
was  briskly  carried  through ;  and  jiresently  the  baggage 
was  all  tumbled  on  shore,  the  boat  on  its  return  voyage  to 
the  lugger,  and  the  passenger  standing  alone  upon  the  jioint 
of  rock,  a  tall,  slender  figure  of  a  gentleman,  habited  in 
black,  with  a  sword  by  his  side  and  a  walking-cane  upon 
his  wrist. 

The  stranger  turned,  spied  me  through  the  mists,  which 
were  beginning  to  fall,  and  waved  and  cried  on  me  to  draw 
near.     I  did  so  with  a  heart  like  lead. 

"Here,  my  good  man,"  said  he,  in  the  English  accent, 
"here  are  some  things  for  Durrisdeer." 

I  was  now  near  enough  to  see  him,  a  very  handsome  figure 
and  countenance,  swarthy,  lean,  long,  with  a  quick,  alert, 


DESCRIPTION  97 

black  look,  as  of  one  who  was  a  fighter  and  accustomed  to 
command;  upon  one  cheek  he  had  a  mole,  not  unbecoming; 
a  large  diamond  sparkled  on  his  hand ;  his  clothes,  although 
of  the  one  hue,  were  of  a  French  and  foppish  design;  his 
ruffles,  which  he  wore  longer  than  common,  of  exquisite  lace; 
and  I  wondered  the  more  to  see  him  in  such  a  guise,  when 
he  was  but  newly  landed  from  a  dirty  smuggling  lugger. 

Still  another  variation  of  the  narrative  method  is  shown 
in  the  following  description : 

A    SHELTER    FROM    THE    WEATHER 

The  boat  lay  in  a  little  triangular  creek ;  the  surrounding 
earth  was  alluvial  clay,  a  sort  of  black  cheesy  mould,  stiff, 
but  kindly  to  work.  Hazel  contrived  to  cut  and  chisel  it 
out  with  a  clumsy  wooden  spade  he  had  made,  and,  throwing 
it  to  the  sides,  raised  by  degrees  two  mud  banks,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  boat;  and  at  last  he  dug  so  deep  that  he 
was  enabled  to  draw  the  boat  another  yard  inland. 

As  Helen  sat  by  netting,  and  forcing  a  smile  now  and 
then  though  sad  at  heart,  he  was  on  his  mettle,  and  the  mud 
walls  rose  rapidly.  He  squared  their  inner  sides  with  the 
spade.  When  he  had  done,  the  boat  lay  in  a  hollow,  the 
walls  of  which,  half  natural,  half  artificial,  were  five  feet 
above  her  gunwale  and  of  course  eight  feet  above  her  bot- 
tom, in  which  Hazel  used  to  lie  at  night.  He  then  laid  the 
mainsail  across  so  as  to  roof  the  stern  part  of  the  boat ;  and 
put  four  heavy  stones  on  it,  lest  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  might 
lift  it. — Charles  Reade  in  Foul  Play. 

In  description,  as  in  narration,  the  beginning  and  the 
end  are  conspicuous  places,  in  which  interesting  and  im- 
portant matter  may  be  put  for  emphasis.  For  example, 
Stevenson  emphasizes  the  shape  of  the  Bay  of  Monterey, 
page  73,  by  comparing  it  to  a  bent  fishing-hook  in  the 
very  first  sentence ;  and  in  the  same  selection  he  empha- 
sizes a  contrast  by  putting  it  at  the  end : 


98  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

And  yet  often  when  the  fog  is  thickest  and  most  chill,  a 
few  steps  out  of  the  town  and  u])  the  slope,  the  night  will 
be  dry  and  warm  and  full  of  inland  perfume. 

Other  examples  are  the  last  sentence  of  the  description 
of  St.  Mark's,  78;  the  first  and  last  of  Dreamthorp, 
83 ;  the  last  clause  of  The  Dead  Sea,  90 ;  the  first  sen- 
tence in  Ardhonnel,  90;  in  French  America,  92;  in  At- 
tica, 92 ;  in  Napoleon's  Military  Plan,  92 ;  and  in  West- 
miiifiter  Ahhcy,  93;  and  the  last  in  The  East',  95. 

The  plan  of  a  description  is  constructed  like  that  of  a 
narrative.  Below  arc  plans  of  Harthover  Place,  94^, 
and  the  description  of  the  Master  of  Ballantrae,  96 : 

HARTHOVER   PLACE 

1.  The  lodge  gates. 

2.  The  walk  up  the  avenue. 

3.  The  scene  at  the  gates  in  front  of  the  house. 

4.  The  house  itself. 

THE    MASTER   OF    BALLANTRAE 

1.  The  boat  in  the  distance. 

2.  The  Master  standing  alone  on  the  rock. 

3.  The  Master's  features  and  clothing. 

23.  Proportion  in  Description. — What  has  been  said 
about  proportion  in  narration,  page  45,  applies  also  to 
description.  The  moro  important  aspects  of  the  subject 
deserve  more  space.  Stevenson,  for  example,  properly 
allots  much  space,  74,  to  the  sounds  at  Monterey  ;  Poe, 
82,  to  traces  of  decay  in  the  House  of  ITslicr;  while  the 
writer  of  The  View  from  the  Palisades,  90,  improperly 
allots  relatively  large  space  at  both  beginning  and  end 
to  matter  that  is  unimportant,  and  some  of  it  actually 
irrelevant. 


DESCRIPTION"  99 

24.  Clearness  in  Description. — Clearness  demands  sim- 
plicity, stress  on  the  larger  features  and  omission  of 
small  and  confusing  details,  precise  connectives,  strict 
maintenance  of  the  point  of  view  and,  when  possible, 
comparisons  with  objects  that  are  familiar  or  striking. 
In  some  descriptions,  often  those  connected  with  scientific 
studies,  a  map  or  diagram  is  desirable.  In  regard  to  the 
first  three  requirements  nothing  need  be  added  to  what 
has  already  been  said  in  this  chapter  and  the  preceding. 

The  necessity  of  maintaining  the  point  of  view  may  be 
shown  by  a  single  example : 

THE    VIEW   FROM    MY  PORCH 

The  view  from  the  front  porch  of  the  house  where  I  was 
born  is  very  attractive.  As  I  sit  tliere,  I  can  see  the 
gravelled  path  leading  down  through  the  front  yard  to  the 
turnpike,  which  is  sliaded  on  both  sides  by  rows  of  maples 
which  my  father  planted  some  thirty  years  ago.  Across 
this  road  is  a  big  swinging  gate.  This  is  the  entrance  to  a 
lane  that  runs  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  through  a  meadow 
spotted  with  yellow  dandelions.  Then  on  a  little  wooden 
bridge  it  crosses  a  brook  full  of  darting  minnows.  A  quarter 
of  a  mile  more_,  and  the  lane  enters  a  wood.  The  fence  be- 
tween the  woodland  and  the  meadow  is  fringed  with  black- 
berry bushes.  You  can  see  gleaming  among  the  leaves  the 
clusters  of  ripening  berries. 

This  picture  is  not  true.  Neither  the  darting  minnows 
nor  the  blackberries  are  visible  from  the  porch;  and  the 
dandelions  and  the  ripening  berries  belong  to  different 
months.  Clearness,  then,  requires  that  when  a  writer  as- 
sumes a  particular  point  of  view,  he  brings  into  the  pic- 
ture only  the  things  to  be  seen  from  there.  The  point 
may,  however,  be  changed,  if  the  reader  is  duly  informed, 
as  in  Harthover  Place,  94,  and  The  East,  95. 


100  ENGLISU   COMPOSITION 

Illuminating  comparisons  are  abundant  in  the  forego- 
ing selections ;  for  example  : 

Page  67. — In  a  tight  sky-blue  suit  that  made  his  arms 
and  legs  like  German  sausages  or  roly-poly  puddings 

Page  73. — The  Bay  of  Monterey  has  been  compared  by 
no  less  a  person  than  General  Sherman  to  a  bent  fishing- 
hook. 

Page  7^. — The  roar  of  water  dwells  in  the  clean,  empty 
rooms  of  Monterey  as  in  a  shell  upon  the  chinmey. 

Page  75. — A  hot,  dry  air  will  overhang  the  town,  close  as 
from  an  oven. 

Page  79. — A  sirloin  that  seemed  cut  from  the  sides  of 
a  rhinoceros 

Page  79. — Potatoes  .  .  .  piled  like  shot  in  an  ord- 
nance yard 

Page  80. — Sometimes  a  tuft  of  high  grass  washed  along 
his  sides  as  a  wave  washes  the  sides  of  a  shijx 

Page  81. — The  huge  limbs  moved  as  steadily  as  pistons. 

Page  81. — The  undergro\vth  on  each  side  of  him  ripped 
with  a  noise  like  torn  canvas. 

Page  93. — Westminster  Abbey  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
cross. 

Page  9^. — Harthover  .  .  .  looked  as  if  somebody 
had  built  a  whole  street  of  houses  of  every  imaginable  shape, 
and  then  stirred  them  together  with  a  spoon. 

Page  95. — A  wide  bay,  smooth  as  glass  and  polished  like 
ice 

The  map  accompanying  Gore  Place,  70,  is  the  kind 
that  is  often  useful  in  making  clear  what  might  othenvise 
be  unintelligible.  Many  subjects,  particularly  in  all 
branches  of  science,  need  such  illustration. 

25.  Interest  in  Description.— In  description,  as  in  nar- 
ration, interest  may  be  secured  by  the  omission  of  trivial 
details  and  by  special  attention  to  such  features  of  a 
scene  as  have  roused  emotion  in  the  observer  or  are  likely 
to  rouse  it  in  the  reader — the  things  which  evoke  any 
lively  feeling  between  laughter  and  tears. 


DESCRIPTION  101 

Examples  of  increased  interest  from  the  cutting  out  of 
unimportant  details  are  to  be  found  in  the  shorter  forms 
oi  An  Old-FasMoned  House,  86,  and  A  Clergyman, 
87. 

The  interest  gained  bj  attention  to  features  that  touch 
the  emotions  is  shown  in  the  description  of  the  House 
of  Usher  and  in  Dreamthorp.  Such  features  are,  as  in 
narration,  presented  more  vividly  by  telling  the  personal 
sensations.  This  is  the  method  in  each  of  the  passages 
just  cited;  and  in  the  other  selections  there  are  many 
additional  illustrations,  such  as : 

Page  69. — The  pedagogue's  mouth  watered. 

Page  74. — It  sets  your  senses  upon  edge ;  you  strain  your 
attention  ;  you  are  clearly  and  unusually  conscious  of  small 
sounds  near  at  hand. 

Page  81. — The  night  mist  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
chilled  Little  Toomai. 

Page  95. — I  have  the  feel  of  the  oar  in  my  hand,  the 
vision  of  a  scorching  blue  sea  in  my  eyes. 

26.  Narration  and  Description  Combined. — Although 
narration  and  description  have  been  treated  separately, 
they  can  hardly  exist  apart,  and  many  themes  are  almost 
evenly  divided  between  the  two.  In  such  combinations 
the  same  principles  of  unity,  order,  and  proportion  must 
be  observed.  The  same  care  must  be  taken  to  prune 
away  unnecessary  matter,  such  as  superfluous  introduc- 
tions and  conclusions,  to  adhere  to  a  logical  order,  to 
give  space  to  important  features  and  pass  quickly  over 
the  less  significant,  to  keep  the  point  of  view  and  to  use 
precise  connectives ;  in  short,  to  be  both  clear  and  inter- 
esting. 


102  EJfGLISH   COMPOSITION 

QUESTIONS   AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  briefly  the  various  kinds  of  description. 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  material  for  description? 

3.  Give  a  list  of  ten  subjects  for  description,  drawn  from  your 
personal  experience. 

4.  Write  a  description  of  from  100  to  300  words  on  one  of  your 
subjects  or  on  one  of  the  following  : 

The  View  from  ^My  Window. 

What  My  Room  Contains. 

My  Mineral  Cabinet. 

The  House  in  AVhich  I  Was  Born. 

The  Old  Garret. 

My  Grandmother's  Flower-Garden. 

My  Native  Town. 

The  Church  Which   I  Attend. 

The  Oldest  House  in  Town. 

The  Graveyard.'^ 

The  Rcading-Room  in  the  Public  Library. 

Our  Chemical  Laboratory. 

The  Swimming  Hole. 

The  City  Waterworks  System. 

A  Country  Circus. 

A  Country  Schoolhouse. 

A  Country  Store. 

A  Shop  Window. 

An  Auction. 

The  Old  Elm. 

An  Abandoned  House. 

A  iV^odel  Farm. 

A  Western  Prairie. 

The  Approach  of  a  Storm. 

A  Skating  Scene. 

A   Race — Waiting  for  the  Signal. 

In  a  Coal  Mine. 

In  a  Paper  Mill. 

A  Ship  in  the  Stocks. 

A  Chinese  Laundry. 

Little   Italy. 

At  the  Museum. 

Boston  as  Seen  from  the  Harvard  Bridge. 


DESCRIPTION"  103 

Boston  Common. 

The  Bowery. 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

The  Washington  Monument. 

Valley  Forge. 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Bad  Lands. 

The  Mammoth  Cave. 

The  Eads  Ship  Railway. 

The  EifFel  Tower. 

Heligoland. 

The  Great  Pyramid. 

The  Rhine. 

Pompeii. 

A  Greek  Theatre. 

A  Chinese  Theatre. 

The  Full  ^loon  Seen  through  a  Telescope. 

The  Rings  of  Saturn. 

A  Picture  of  a  Battle. 

The  Face  I  Know  Best. 

The  Pop-Corn  Man. 

The  Fortune-Teller. 

Uncle  Sam. 

A  Portrait  of  Napoleon. 

Mark  Twain. 

5.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which  some 
of  the  features  affect  the  sense  of  sight. 

6.  Another,  of  hearing. 

7.  Another,  of  smell. 

8.  Another,  of  taste. 

9.  Another,  of  touch. 

10.  Another  in  which  at  least  one  of  the  features  stirs  an  emotion. 

11.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  securing  unity  in 
description  ? 

12.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  descriptions 
lack  unity,  and  rewrite  the  last  two  : 

The  house,  which  was  an  imposing  structure,  stood  in  a 
large  piece  of  ground.  There  was  considerable  vegetation 
about  it^  and  several  animals  were  in  the  yard. 


104  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


MY    FATHER  S    LIBRARY 

My  father's  library  is  the  largest  room  in  our  house ;  it  is 
thirty  feet  six  inches  long  by  twenty-two  feet  four  inehes 
broad.  You  enter  from  a  door  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
west  side ;  there  are  two  windows  on  the  nortli  and  two  on  the 
south,  each  six  feet  high  and  four  wide,  and  each  containing 
two  sashes  with  a  single  pane  of  plate-glass.  On  the  east 
side  is  a  glass  door  opening  out  on  a  wide  porch ;  and  on 
each  side  of  the  door  is  a  window,  just  the  height  and  breadth 
of  the  other  windows.  In  the  middle  of  the  north  end  is  a 
large  fireplace  of  yellow  mottled  brick.  Within  it  are  two 
tall  brass  andirons.  Above  it  is  a  mantel  of  green  oak,  to 
match  the  other  finishings  of  the  interior.  On  the  mantel 
are  two  tall  vases  of  iridescent  glass,  and  a  French  gilt  clock 
under  a  glass  bell.  On  the  wall  above  hangs  an  engraved 
portrait  of  Milton. 

The  floor  of  the  room  is  of  oak,  and  is  partly  covered 
by  two  oriental  rugs.  One  of  them  is  ten  feet  six  inehes  by 
eight  feet  four;  the  other  is  twelve  feet  by  nine  feet  eight. 
Both  are  woven  with  patterns  of  white  flowers  and  green 
leaves  on  a  background  of  red. 

A  brass  chandelier  witli  six  lights,  combination  fixtures 
for  either  gas  or  electricity,  hangs  from  the  middle  of  the 
ceiling,  and  there  are  two  double  brackets  on  each  of  the 
four  walls.  From  the  central  chandelier  a  rubber  tube 
carries  the  gas  down  to  a  Welsbach  light,  with  a  brass  stand- 
ard, made  in  the  form  of  a  twisted  rope.  The  shade  is  green 
outside  and  lined  with  white.     This  is  for  a  reading  light. 

The  desk,  of  green  oak,  is  flat-topped,  with  a  row  of 
drawers  running  down  each  side.  On  it  is  a  big  gray  blotter, 
a  silver  pen-rack  in  the  form  of  a  stag's  antlers,  a  silver- 
topped,  cut-glass  ink-stand,  two  inches  square,  and  a  calen- 
dar pad,  on  which  my  father  notes  his  engagements.  Tlie 
other  pieces  of  furniture  are  two  long  couches,  upliolstered 
in  dark  brown  leather,  three  big  easy-cliairs,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  fireplace  and  one  by  tlie  desk,  and  a  revolving 
book-case  containing  the  Centuri/  Dictionary. 

The  book-cases,  of  green  oak,  with  sliding  glass  doors, 
cover  the  walls  of  the  entire  room  from  floor  to  ceiling,  ex- 
cept above  the  doors^  the  windows^  and  tlie  mantel.     Most 


DESCRIPTION  105 

of  the  shelves  are  filled  with  books  in  various  bindings.  My 
father  says  he  has  not  read  them  all,  but  he  hopes  to  get  time 
to  read  them  when  he  retires  from  business.  My  mother 
tells  him  that  buying  books  is  a  mania,  and  that  he  likes 
buying  better  than  reading. 

TEN  MILE  RIVER 

There  is  nothing  I  enjoy  more  than  canoeing,  especially 
in  spring  and  autumn.  Rowing,  swimming,  fishing,  and 
skating  are  all  very  well  in  their  way,  but  give  me  a  good 
canoe  on  a  stream  which  has  a  fairly  swift  current.  Last 
spring  my  father  bought  me  a  Morris  canoe  from  a  place 
near  Bangor,  Maine.  It  was  shipped  promptly,  for  I  got 
the  shipping  receipt ;  but  it  was  nearly  two  weeks  in  coming 
through  to  Providence.  I  advise  people  who  are  going  to 
have  goods  come  by  freight  to  order  a  month  early.  I  keep 
my  canoe  on  the  Ten  Mile  River,  near  Providence.  I  can 
easily  ride  out  to  the  boat-house  on  my  bicycle.  The  canoe 
is  seventeen  feet  long  and  holds  four  people  comfortably. 

The  river,  which  empties  into  the  Seekonk,  is  a  beautiful 
stream.  The  boat-house  stands  on  slack-water  above  a  dam. 
We  pass  under  a  bridge  immediately  after  leaving  the  house, 
and  soon  run  up  to  a  point  where  the  river  is  not  more  than 
thirty  feet  wide.  It  is  very  winding,  and  the  banks  are 
overhung  with  bushes.  At  one  point  it  is  crossed  by  an  old 
arched  bridge  of  stone,  very  picturesque.  After  paddling 
up  a  mile  or  two  we  come  to  the  dam  at  Hunt's  Mills.  We 
can  carry  the  canoe  around  the  dam  and  then  go  a  long  way 
farther. 

One  day  last  spring  the  water  was  high,  and  the  swift  cur- 
rent swept  me  round  a  bend  under  some  bushes  and  tipped 
me  out.  I  got  thoroughly  drenched.  Fortunately  I  could 
swim,  for  the  water  at  that  point  was  over  my  head.  I 
learned  to  swim  three  summers  before,  but  this  was  my  first 
chance  to  swim  in  an  emergency.  The  boy  who  was  with 
me  could  not  swim,  but  he  clung  to  the  bushes  and  pulled 
himself  out  on  the  bank. 

13.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  the  order  of  material 
in  description  ? 

14.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  that  begins 
with  a  brief  sketch,  or  outline. 


106  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

15.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which  the 
parts  are  taken  up  in  regular  order. 

16.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which  the 
point  of  view  changes,  as  in  Harthover  Place. 

17.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which  the 
point  of  view  changes,  as  in  The  East. 

18.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which  the 
point  of  view  changes,  as  in  the  description  of  the  Master  of  Ballan- 
trae. 

19.  Draw  plans  of  The  Gore  Place  ;  The  Cathedral  of  Chartres  ;  The 
JVoods  and  the  Pacific  ;  and  A  Shelter  from  the  IVeather. 

20.  Point  out  the  faults  in  proportion  in  Ten  Mile  River. 

21.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  clearness? 

22.  Write  a  description  of  from  100  to  200  words,  illustrated  by 
a  map  or  diagram. 

23.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  which  shall 
contain  a  comparison  with  something  familiar  or  striking. 

24.  Point  out  in  the  various  selections  half  a  dozen  such  com- 
parisons that  are  not  noted  on  page  100. 

25.  From  the  point  of  view  of  interest,  what  are  the  faults  of 
Ten  Mile  River  ? 

26.  Write  a  description  of  from  fifty  to  100  words,  in  which 
emphasis  is  laid  on  the  personal  sensations. 

27.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  a  theme  that  combines 
narration  and  description  ? 

28.  Write  a  theme  of  from  100  to  300  words,  that  shall  combine 
narration  and  description  about  equally. 


CHAPTER    IV 

EXPOSITION 

27.  Kinds  of  Exposition. — For  exposition  there  is  a 
wide  range  of  subjects.  One  may  expound  the  structure 
of  a  class  of  objects,  box-kites  or  buttercups;  one  may 
expound  a  process,  such  as  playing  football,  solving 
quadratic  equations,  or  making  bread ;  a  theory  or  prin- 
ciple, like  the  atomic  theory  in  chemistry,  the  principle 
of  the  lever  in  physics,  or  the  meaning  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed ;  one  may  write  a  criticism  of  a  book  or  summarize 
a  book  or  essay  that  is  itself  an  exposition,  such  as 
Macaulay's  Essay  on  Milton. 

28.  Sources  of  Material.- — The  sources  of  material  are 
personal  experience  and  books.  The  first  source,  as  in 
narration  and  description,  should  be  drawn  on  most  freely 
in  order  to  develop  the  powers  of  observation. 

29.  Material  from  Observation. — From  personal  ob- 
servation one  may  choose  the  facts  which  one  learns  or 
the  theories  which  one  forms  in  the  course  of  every-day 
experience  or  of  special  investigation  and  experiment. 
The  amount  and  kind  of  material  are  indicated  by  the 
following  expositions  and  the  list  of  subjects  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter. 

CHRISTMAS    AT    MY    HOUSE 

Christmas  festivals  at  my  house  are  not  conducted  as 
in  most  places.  Instead  of  presenting  gifts  to  each  other, 
young  and  old  unite  in  bringing  food,  clothing,  toys,  and 

107 


108  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

other  articles  for  the  needy.  Under  the  old  system  it  is 
liard  to  suit  various  tastes,  and  there  is  much  fuss  over 
the  choice  and  preparation  of  gifts.  Our  system  has  the 
true  spirit  of  Christmas,  and  even  the  children  gain  more 
satisfaction  by  helping  those  who  are  in  real  want.  Then, 
too,  our  contributions  bring  cheer  to  many  who  might  other- 
wise be  in  misery  and  pain. 


THE     LANTERN-BEARERS 

Toward  the  end  of  September,  when  school-time  was 
drawing  near  and  the  nights  were  already  black,  we 
would  begin  to  sally  from  our  respective  villas,  each 
equipped  with  a  tin  bull's-eye  lantern.  We  wore  them 
buckled  to  the  waist  upon  a  cricket  belt,  and  over  them, 
such  was  the  rigor  of  the  game,  a  buttoned  top-coat. 
They  smelled  noisomely  of  blistered  tin ;  they  never 
burned  aright,  though  they  would  always  burn  our  fin- 
gers; their  use  was  naught;  the  pleasure  of  them  merely 
fanciful ;  and  yet  a  boy  with  a  bull's-eye  imder  his  top- 
coat  asked    for   nothing    more. 

When  two  of  these  asses  met  there  would  be  an  anxious 
"Have  you  got  your  lantern?"  and  a  gratified  "Yes!" 
That  was  the  shibboleth,  and  very  needful  too;  for,  as  it 
was  the  rule  to  keep  our  glory  contained,  none  could 
recognize  a  lantern-bearer,  unless  (like  the  pole-cat)  by 
the  smell.  Four  or  five  would  sometimes  crawl  into  the 
belly  of  a  ten-man  lugger,  with  nothing  but  the  thwarts 
above  them — for  the  cabin  was  usually  locked — or  choose 
out  some  hollow  of  the  links  where  the  wind  might  whistle 
overhead.  There  the  coats  would  be  unbuttoned  and  the 
bull's-eyes  discovered;  and  in  the  checkering  glimmer, 
under  the  huge  windy  hall  of  the  night,  and  cheered  by  a 
rich  steam  of  toasting  tinware,  these  fortunate  young 
gentlemen  would  crouch  together  in  the  cold  sand  of  the 
links  or  on  the  scaly  bilges  of  the  fishing-boat,  and  delight 
themselves  with  inappropriate  talk.  The  talk,  at  any 
rate,  was  but  a  condiment,  and  these  gatherings  them- 
selves only  accidents  in  the  career  of  the  lantern-bearer. 
The  essence  of  this  bliss  was  to  walk  by  yourself  in  the 
black    night;    the    slide    shut,    the    top-coat    buttoned;    not 


EXPOSITION  109 

a  ray  escaping,  whether  to  conduct  your  footsteps  or  to 
make  your  glory  public;  a  mere  pillar  of  darkness  in  the 
dark;  and  all  the  while,  deep  down  in  the  privacy  of  your 
fool's  heart,  to  know  you  had  a  bull's-eye  at  your 
belt,  and  to  exult  and  sing  over  the  knowledge. — Arranged 
from  Across  the  Plains,  with  Other  Memories  and  Essays, 
by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

PRACTICAL     CHRISTIANITY 

I  heard  a  sermon  yesterday  that  seemed  to  me  an  excel- 
lent exposition  of  the  practical  side  of  Christianity.  The 
preacher  began  by  saying  that  there  is  an  erroneous  belief 
that  religion  consists  wholly  of  worship,  and  he  then 
went  on  to  unfold  the  true  idea.  He  said  that  there  is 
a  growing  tendency  in  society  to  divide  into  classes,  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  the  educated  and  the  ignorant.  In  the 
churches  themselves  the  young  and  the  old  separate  from 
each  other.  The  duty  of  the  Christian  is  to  do  away 
as  far  as  possible  with  these  distinctions.  Christ's  teach- 
ing is  not  that  his  followers  should  sit  at  his  feet,  but 
that  they  should  preach  to  others  as  he  preached  to  them. 
The  college  graduate's  education  is.  not  merely  for  his 
own  benefit,  but  primarily  for  the  good  of  his  fellow- 
men.  Time  and  again  the  preacher  said,  "Go  back!  If 
you  have  made  any  advance,  go  back  and  lift  others  up 
to   your   level.      That   is   the   spirit   of  true    Christianity." 

THE    EXPERIMENT 

An  interesting  experiment  was  performed  in  class  this 
morning  by  the  instructor.  He  filled  a  small  bomb  with 
water,  chilled  almost  to  the  freezing-point,  then  tightly 
closed  the  fuse-hole  by  means  of  a  heavy  screw.  This 
bomb  was  placed  in  a  vessel  and  surrounded  by  alternate 
layers  of  ice  and  salt.  Finally  a  cloth  was  laid  over  this 
mass  and  we  awaited  developments.  In  about  fifteen 
minutes  there  was  an  explosion  which  sent  fragments  of 
ice  out  of  the  vessel  and  startled  the  students  in  the  front 
row.  The  water  in  the  bomb  had  frozen,  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  ice  had  burst  the  little  iron  ball. 


no 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


SNOW-CRYSTALS 


If  the  air  during  a  snow-storm  be  still,  each  flake  that 
falls  will  be  found  to  exliibit  a  regular  shape.  A  ])er- 
fectly  formed  snow-flake  is.  in  faet,  an  exquisite  little 
crystal;  but  it  commonly  happens  that  a  flake  is  made  up 


of  several  of  these  crj^stals  grouped  together.  Some  idea 
of  the  beauty  and  variety  of  snow-crystals  may  be  formed 
by  reference  to  the  accompanying  figure,  which  represents 
a  few  of  the  shapes  observed  by  Captain  Scoresby  in  the 
arctic  regions. 

More  than  a  thousand  different  kinds  liave  been  de- 
scribed ;  but  various  as  these  are,  they  are  all  characterized 
by  tlie  same  symmetry.  Some  of  these  snow-crystals  are 
simply  solid  rods  or  flat  scales^  each  with  six  sides;  others 
are  six-sided  pyramids,  but  the  most  common  form  is  that 


EXPOSITION"  111 

of  little  six-pointed  stars  variously  modified.  Each  star 
has  an  icy  centre  as  a  nucleus^  from  which  six  little 
spicules,  or  rods  of  ice,  are  shot  forth  at  regular  angles; 
and  from  the  sides  of  these  rays,  secondary  rays,  or  raylets, 
may  be  given  oif  at  the  same  angle,  thus  producing  com- 
plex stars  of  great  beauty,  but,  in  spite  of  their  complex- 
ity, always  true  to  the  hexagonal  symmetry  of  the  system 
to  which  ice  belongs.  Each  part  of  the  pattern  is  repeated 
round  the  centre  six  times,  as  is  generally  the  case  with 
the  beautifully  symmetrical  shapes  seen  in  a  common 
kaleidoscope. — Thomas  Henry  Huxley  in  Physiography. 

A    THEORY    OF    WAGES 

The  five  following  are  the  jirincipal  circumstances  which 
make  a  difference  in  wages.  First,  the  agreeableness  or 
disagreeableness  of  the  employments  themselves ;  secondly, 
the  easiness  and  cheapness,  or  the  difficulty  and  expense, 
of  learning  them;  thirdly,  the  constancy  or  inconstancy  of 
employment  in  them;  fourthly,  the  small  or  great  trust 
which  must  be  reposed  in  those  who  exercise  them;  and 
fifthly,  the  probability  or  improbability  of  success  in  them. 

First,  the  wages  of  labor  vary  with  the  ease  or  hardship, 
the  cleanliness  or  dirtiness,  the  honorableness  or  dishonor- 
ableness,  of  the  employment.  Thus  in  most  places  a  jour- 
neyman tailor  earns  less  than  a  journeyman  weaver.  His 
work  is  much  easier.  A  journeyman  weaver  earns  less 
than  a  journeyman  smith.  His  work  is  not  always  easier, 
but  it  is  much  cleanlier.  A  journeyman  blacksmith  seldom 
earns  so  much  in  twelve  hours  as  a  collier  does  in  eight. 
His  work  is  not  quite  so  dirty,  is  less  dangerous,  and  is 
carried  on  in    daylight,   and   above  ground. 

Secondly,  the  wages  of  labor  vary  with  the  easiness 
and  cheapness,  or  the  difficidty  and  expense,  of  learning 
the  business.  When  any  expensive  machine  is  erected, 
the  extraordinary  work  to  be  performed  by  it  before  it 
is  worn  out  is  expected  to  replace  the  capital  laid  out 
upon  it.,  with  at  least  the  ordinary  profits.  A  man  edu- 
cated at  the  expense  of  much  labor  and  time  to  any  of 
those  employments  which  require  extraordinary  dexterity 
and  skilly  may  be  comi^ared  to  one  of  those  expensive 
machines.     The  work  which  he  learns  to  perform  will  re- 


113  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

place  to  him  tlie  whole  expense  of  his  education.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  wages  of  skilled  labor  and  those  of 
common  labor  is  founded  upon  this  ])rinciple.  Education 
in  the  ingenious  arts  and  in  tlie  liberal  professions  is  still 
more  tedious  and  expensive.  The  pecuniary  recompense, 
therefore,  of  painters  and  sculptors,  of  lawj'ers  and  phy- 
sicians, ought  to  be  much  more  liberal;  and  it  is  so  accord- 
ingly. 

Thirdly,  the  wages  of  labor  in  different  occupations 
vary  with  the  constancy  or  inconstancy  of  employment. 
In  the  greater  part  of  manufactures  a  journeyman  may  be 
pretty  sure  of  employment  almost  every  day  in  the  year 
that  he  is  able  to  work.  A  mason  or  bricklayer,  on  the 
contrary,  can  work  neither  in  hard  frost  nor  in  foul 
weather.  What  he  earns,  therefore^  when  he  is  employed 
must  maintain  him  while  he  is  idle.  Where  the  earnings 
of  the  greater  part  of  manufacturers,  accordingly,  are 
nearly  upon  a  level  with  the  day-wages  of  common  labor- 
ers, those  of  masons  and  bricklayers  are  generally  from 
one-half   more  to  double  those  wages. 

Fourthly,  the  wages  of  labor  vary  according  to  the  small 
or  great  trust  which  must  be  reposed  in  the  workman. 
The  wages  of  goldsmiths  and  jewellers  are  everywhere 
superior  to  those  of  many  other  workmen,  not  only  of 
e(jual  but  of  much  superior  ingenuity,  on  account  of  the 
precious    materials    with   which    they    are   entrusted. 

Fifthly,  the  wages  of  labor  in  different  employments 
vary  according  to  the  probability  or  impro])ability  of  suc- 
cess in  them.  In  the  greater  part  of  mechanic  trades  suc- 
cess is  almost  certain,  but  very  uncertain  in  the  liberal 
professions.  Put  your  son  apprentice  to  a  shoemaker, 
there  is  little  doubt  of  his  learning  to  make  a  pair  of 
shoes;  but  send  him  to  study  the  law,  it  is  at  least  twenty 
to  one  if  he  ever  makes  such  proficiency  as  will  enable 
him  to  live  by  the  business.  In  a  perfectly  fair  lottery 
those  who  draw  the  prizes  ought  to  gain  all  that  is  lost 
by  those  who  draw  the  blanks.  In  a  profession  where 
twenty  fail  for  one  that  succeeds,  that  one  ought  to  gain 
all  that  should  have  been  gained  by  the  unsuccessful 
twenty.  The  counsellor  at  law  who,  perhaps,  at  near 
forty  years  of  age  begins  to  make  something  by  his  pro- 
fession,  ought  to   receive   the    retribution    not   only   of    his 


EXPOSITION  113 

own  tedious  and  expensive  education,  but  of  that  of  more 
than  twenty  others,  who  are  never  likely  to  make  any- 
thing by  it.  How  extravagant  soever  the  fees  of  coun- 
sellors at  law  may  sometimes  appear,  their  real  retribu- 
tion is  never  equal  to  this. — Arranged  from  The  Wealth 
of  Nations  by  Adam  Smith. 

30.  Material  from  Books — The  material  from  books 
is  inexhaustible.  One  may  summarize  a  single  exposi- 
tion, or  ecather  into  one  theme  facts  from  several  different 
books,  as  in  the  following  examples: 

EARTH-WORMS     AND     THEIR     FUNCTIONS 

Worms  have  played  a  more  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world  than  most  persons  would  at  first  sup- 
pose. In  almost  all  humid  countries  they  are  extraordina- 
rily numerous,  and  for  their  size  possess  great  muscular 
power.  In  many  parts  of  England  a  weight  of  more  than 
ten  tons  of  dry  earth  annually  passes  through  their  bodies 
and  is  brought  to  the  surface  on  each  acre  of  land;  so 
that  the  whole  superficial  bed  of  vegetable  mould  passes 
through  their  bodies  in  the  course  of  every  few  years. 
Moreover,  the  particles  of  the  softer  rocks  suffer  some 
amount  of  mechanical  trituration  in  the  muscular  gizzards 
of  worms,  in  which  small  stones  serve  as  millstones. 

Worms  prepare  the  ground  in  an  excellent  manner  for 
the  growth  of  fibrous-rooted  plants  and  for  seedlings  of 
all  kinds.  They  periodically  expose  the  mould  to  the  air, 
and  sift  it  so  that  no  stones  larger  than  the  particles  which 
they  can  swallow  are  left  in  it.  They  mingle  the  whole 
intimately  together,  like  a  gardener  who  prepares  fine  soil 
for  his  choicest  plants.  In  this  state  it  is  well  fitted  to 
retain  moisture  and  to  absorb  all  soluble  substances.  The 
bones  of  dead  animals,  the  harder  parts  of  insects,  the 
shells  of  land  mollusks,  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  are  before  long 
all  buried  beneath  the  accumulated  castings  of  worms,  and 
are  thus  brought  in  a  more  or  less  decayed  state  within 
reach  of  tlie  roots  of  plants.  Worms  likewise  drag  an 
infinite  number  of  dead  leaves  and  other  parts   of  plants 


114  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

into  tlicir  burrows,  partly  for  the  sake  of  plugging  them 
up  and  partly  as    food. 

The  leaves  which  are  dragged  into  the  burrows  as  food, 
after  being  torn  into  the  finest  slircds,  partially  digested, 
and  saturated  with  the  intestinal  secretions^  are  com- 
mingled with  much  earth.  This  earth  forms  the  dark- 
colored,  rich  humus  which  almost  everywhere  covers  the 
surface  of  the  land  with  a  fairly  well-defined  layer  or 
mantle.  Von  Hansen  placed  two  worms  in  a  vessel  eighteen 
inches  in  diametcr_,  which  was  filled  with  sand,  on  which 
fallen  leaves  were  strewed ;  and  these  were  soon  dragged 
into  their  burrows  to  a  depth  of  three  inches.  After  about 
six  weeks  an  almost  uniform  layer  of  sand,  four-tenths 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  was  converted  into  humus  by  hav- 
ing passed  through  the  alimentary  canals  of  these  two 
worms. 

When  we  behold  a  wide,  turf-covered  expanse,  we 
should  remember  that  its  smoothness,  on  which  so  nmch  of 
its  beauty  depends,  is  mainly  due  to  all  the  inequalities 
having  been  slowly  leveled  by  tlie  worms.  It  is  a  mar- 
velous refiection  that  the  whole  of  the  superficial  mould 
over  any  such  expanse  has  passed,  and  will  again  pass, 
every  few  years  through  the  bodies  of  worms.  The  plough 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  valuable  of  man's  in- 
ventions ;  but  long  before  he  existed  the  land  was  in  fact 
regularly  ploughed,  and  still  continues  to  be  thus  ploughed 
by  earth-worms.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  there  are 
many  other  animals  wliieli  have  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  world  as  have  these  lowly  or- 
ganized creatures. — Condensed  from  Charles  Darwin's 
summary  in  his  Vegetable  Mould  and  Earth-Worms. 

THE    ROMAN    DOMUS 

Key-sentence : 

Tlie   Roman  domus  was  divided   into  two  main  sections, 
the   atrium    and    the    peristi/lium,   each   surrounded   by   its 
respective  rooms,  which  were  connected  by  an  intermediate 
apartment,  the  tahlinum,  and  several  corridors,  fauces. 
Plan: 

1.  Domus   as  distinguished   from  insula   and   atrium. 

2.  General  statement  of  the  plan  of  the  domus. 


EXPOSITION"  115 

S.  The  atria. 

a.  The  vestibulum, 

b.  The  ostium. 

c.  The  atrium. 

d.  The  cubiculae. 

4.  Intermediate  rooms. 

a.  The  tablinum. 

b.  The  alae. 

c.  The  fauces. 

5.  The  peristylia. 

a.  The  peristylium  and  lararium. 

b.  The  cubiculae  and  bibliotheca. 

c.  The  culina  and  pistrina. 

d.  The  tricliyiium. 

e.  The  slaves'  quarters. 

6.  Comparison  of  the  ancient  and  the  modern  house. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  dwelling-houses  peculiar  to 
the  Romans:  the  insula  and  the  domus.  The  insula  was 
a  "  block "  designed  to  accommodate  several  families,  to 
whom  it  was  let  out  in  flats.  The  domus,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  constructed  for  the  occupation  of  a  single  proi^rietor 
and  his  family.  Romulus  and  the  Palatine  shepherds  lived 
not  in  domus,  but  in  atria,  huts  of  mud-daubed  osiers,  con- 
taining only  one  room.  Cicero  and  Petronius,  on  the  con- 
trary, lived  in  domus,  houses  of  burnt  brick,  with  numerous 
apartments.  It  is  the  domus,  the  typical  Roman  private 
house  of  the  Republic  and  the  Empire,  of  which  I  write. 

The  domus  were  all  built  upon  a  certain  fixed  plan,  vary- 
ing only,  according  to  the  wealth  of  their  individual  own- 
ers, in  the  size^  number,  and  distribution  of  their  rooms. 
Every  domus  was  divided  into  two  principal  sections,  the 
atrium  and  the  peristylium,  each  surrounded  by  its  respec- 
tive rooms,  which  were  connected  by  an  intermediate  apart- 
ment, the  tablinum,  and  several  corridors^  fauces.  The 
best  illustration  of  the  typical  Roman  house  which  I  have 
been  able  to  find  is  the  Pompeiian  House  of  the  Tragic 
Poet,  better  knoAvn  perhaps  to  most  people  by  Lord 
Lytton's  name.  The  House  of  Glaucus,  in  The  Last 
Days  of  Pompeii.  The  Pompeiian  house  was  identical 
with  the  Roman  house^  and  of  course  the  recently  exca- 


116 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


GROUND-PLAN    OF    THE    HOUSE    OF    THE   TRAGIC    POET,   POMPEII 


A.  Veetibalum. 

B.  Ostium. 

C.  Atrium. 

D.  Impluvium. 

E.  Clothes-presses. 

F.  Cubiculae  for  guests  or  family. 

G.  Tablinum. 
H.  Fauces. 

I.    Alae. 


J.   Peristylium, 
K.  Piscina. 
L.  Lararium. 
M.  Family  li\ing  rooms. 
N.  Bibliotheca. 
O.  Culina. 
P.  Triclinium. 

Q.  Tahernae.    stores     having     nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  the  house. 


EXPOSITION  117 

vated  Pompeiian  dwellings  are  in  a  better  state  of  preser- 
vation than  those  at  Rome. 

Before  considering  the  atrium,  we  must  give  attention 
for  a  moment  to  the  vestibulum  and  the  ostium.  The  ves- 
tibulum  was  a  little  portico  before  the  front  door;  that  is, 
the  door  was  set  back  a  few  feet  from  the  street,  as  in 
the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet.  When  you  had  rapped 
with  a  bronze  knocker,  the  folding  doors,  fores,  were 
cautiously  pushed  aside  by  a  slave,  who  requested  you  to 
step  into  the  ostium,  a  narrow  corridor.  On  the  threshold 
Salve,  Welcome,  was  worked  into  the  mosaic;  and  very 
frequently  just  above  it  hiuig  a  caged  psittacus,  parrot, 
taught  to  screech  a  Salve  at  every  guest.  The  slave 
and  a  watch-dog  were  chained  fast  there  in  the  ostium. 
Consequently  a  fierce  black  and  white  dog,  either  wrought 
in  the  mosaic  pavement  or  painted  on  the  wall,  with  the 
inscription  under  it.  Cave  Canem,  Beware  of  the  dog, 
taught  the  visitor  to  hasten  toward   the   atrium. 

The  atrium  was  separated  from  the  ostium  by  a  door 
veiled  with  a  richly  embroidered  curtain.  The  atrium  was 
a  large  hall,  roofed  in  on  all  four  sides  but  open  to  the 
sky  in  the  centre.  This  opening,  called  the  compluvium, 
served  both  to  let  the  light  in — the  Roman  house  had  no 
windows  on  the  ground  floor — and  to  let  the  rain-water 
fall  into  a  pool  below,  called  the  impluvium.  The  Romans 
were  very  dependent  on  rain-water.  Consequently  the  im- 
pluvium, was  made  to  drain  into  a  well  beneath  it;  and  very 
often  a  tiny  marble  fountain  played  in  the  centre,  sending 
its  spray  over  pots  of  flowers,  anemones,  irises,  and  tall 
lilies.  If  the  sun  shone  too  brightly,  a  purple  awning 
stretched  across  the  compluvium  and  filled  the  atrium 
with  a  ruddy  light.  Furthermore,  the  compluvium  was 
often  supported  by  pillars  of  rare  marbles :  Cicero's  atrium 
had  four  columns  of  real  Hymettian  marble.  The  floors 
of  the  atrium  were  of  highly  polished  stone,  marble,  or  mo- 
saic, inlaid  with  pictures  of  fishes,  swans,  and  dolphins.  The 
ceiling  was  either  bare,  exposing  the  beams,  or  covered  with 
fresco-work,  or  inlaid  with  tortoise-shell,  ivory,  and  gold. 
The  walls  were  most  exquisitely  frescoed  with  paintings 
of  landscapes  or  scenes  from  Greek  mythology,  such  as  the 
rescue  of  Andromeda  by  Perseus  or  the  sacrifice  of  Iphi- 
genia.     Around  the  sides  of  the  atrium  were  displayed  all 


118  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

sorts  of  armor,  tlie  sacred  waxen  masks  of  ancestors,  beauti- 
ful portrait  busts  and  life-size  statues  of  the  richest  bronze 
or  the  snowiest  marble. 

Several  rooms  opened  from  the  right  and  left  of  the 
atrium,  called  cuhiculae,  which  were  dwelling  or  sleeping- 
rooms  designed  for  the  family  or  for  guests.  These  apart- 
ments were  very  small.  They  were  lighted  from  the  com- 
pluvium  and  heated,  as  was  the  atrium,  by  portable 
charcoal-stoves.  In  the  evening  the  atria  and  peristylia 
were  lighted  by  oval  lamps  of  terra-cotta  or  bronze.  The 
spaces  on  either  side  of  the  ostium,  marked  Q  Q  in  the  plan 
of  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  might  be  divided  into 
cuhiculae  as  in  the  House  of  Pansa,  or  rented  for  stores, 
tahernae,  as  in  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 

At  the  extreme  end  of  the  atrium  opened  the  tahlinum, 
a  private  reception-room  with  a  tiny  recess,  ala,  on  either 
side,  where  the  family  archives  were  preserved.  Beyond 
the  alae  were  the  fauces,  corridors  for  the  convenience  of 
the  slaves  in  passing  from  one  part  of  the  house  to  another. 

From  the  tablinum  you  entered  a  colonnaded  court  open 
to  the  sky,  the  peristi/liu7n.  The  peristyle  was  the  Roman's 
garden,  for  as  one  house  was  separated  from  another  only 
by  a  space  of  two  and  one-half  feet,  there  was  no  room 
for  a  garden  outside.  In  the  centre  of  the  peristyle  was 
a  piscina,  fish-pond,  with  a  large  fountain.  The  beauty  of 
the  surrounding  garden,  viridarium,  was  bewildering. 
Imagine  the  wall  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  peristyle  over- 
grown with  grape-vines  and  tangled  woodbine;  and  picture 
here  and  there  against  it  a  dark  cypress  or  a  tall  poplar, 
and  in  one  corner  the  lararium,  family  shrine,  almost  hid- 
den among  the  vines.  The  wliole  area  of  the  peristyle 
was  planted  with  blooming  shrubs ;  pink,  red,  cream- 
colored,  and  yellow  roses  flourished  in  wild  luxuriance.  All 
around  the  fish-pond  grew  deep  moss  with  patches  of 
purple  and  of  white  violets,  cultivated  witli  the  greatest 
care,  for  violets  as  well  as  roses  were  favorite  flowers  with 
the   Romans. 

Opening  from  the  left  side  of  the  peristj'le  were  several 
family  living-rooms  and  a  hihJiothcca,  study.  On  the  right 
was  the  culina,  kitchen,  pistriua,  bakery-,  and  triclinium, 
dining-room.  The  kitchen  contained  either  a  bronze  char- 
coal-stove, or  a  stove  of  brick,  and  around  its  walls  were 


lEXPOSITIOH  119 

shelves  for  the  bronze  cooking-utensils.  The  dining-room 
was  furnished  with  cushioned  couches^  which  were  placed 
on  three  sides  of  the  cedar  dining-table,  and  the  walls  were 
frescoed  as  in  the  other  rooms. 

A  second  story  was  frequently  built  over  the  cubiculae, 
and  was  entirely  taken  up  with  small  rooms  for  slaves. 
These  rooms  opened  from  the  peristyle  and  were  lighted 
by  latticed  windows. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  differences  between  our  resi- 
dences and  those  of  the  Romans.  Our  houses  are  lighted 
not  by  skylights  but  by  windows;  our  gardens  are  outside 
the  houscj  never  in  an  enclosed  court.  The  interior  decora- 
tion of  a  modern  house  lies  mostly  in  its  bric-a-brac  and 
furniture,  while  that  of  the  Roman  house  consisted  chiefly 
in  the  adornment  of  the  floors,  walls,  and  ceiling.  Further- 
more, we  of  course  lay  much  stress  upon  a  handsome 
exterior,  while  the  Roman  paid  no  attention  to  the  outside 
appearance  of  his  house.  If_,  however^  we  conclude  that 
the  modern  house  is  more  practical  and  convenient,  we  do 
not  hesitate  to  allow  a  certain  picturesqueness  and  charm 
to  the   Roman  clomiis  which  we  do  not  possess. 

To  appreciate  this  singular  beauty  and  fascination, 
imagine  yourself  standing  near  the  ostium  and  looking 
toward  the  peristyle.  Immediately  before  you  is  the 
stately  atrium  with  its  pool — you  can  see  the  clouds  as 
they  float  by  reflected  in  the  water.  The  peristyle,  framed 
by  the  open  doors  of  the  shaded  tablinum,  makes  a  lovely 
picture:  the  afternoon  sun  touches  the  silver  stream  of  the 
fountain;  the  roses  move  in  the  light  breeze;  the  statuettes, 
tall  and  white,  and  the  marble  basins  are  all  the  brighter 
against  the  dark  cypresses  and  evergreens ;  the  air  is  sweet 
with  roses,  violets,  and  lilies ;  you  hear  the  buzz  of  the  bees 
about  the  roses  and  the  musical  plash  of  the  fountains. 
Then  imagine  those  tall,  graceful  women  and  stern,  digni- 
fied men  in  flowing  robes  as  they  walk  to  and  fro  among 
the  flowers — for  without  them  your  picture  is  incomplete. 


Reference  books  consulted: 

1.   Overbeck,    Dr.     J.:     Pompeii    in    seinem    Gebaiiden, 
Alterthiimern  und  Kunstwerken,  pp.  257-413. 


'  120  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

2.  Smith:  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities, 
vol.  1,  ))}>.  ()()1-()S(). 

3.  Rich:  Dictionary  of  Roman  and  Greek  Antiquities, 
pp.  21.8-ii51. 

4.  Lytton:  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  book  i,  cliapter  3. 

5.  Neville-Rolfe:  A  Pompeiian  Gentleman's  Home  Life 
— the  Recently  Excavated  House  of  "A.  Vettius,"  p.  23. 

6.  Smith  and  Slater:  Architecture,  Classic  and  Early 
Christian,])]).   171—181. 

7.  Barnes:  Brief  History  of  Rome,  pp.   112-116. 

8.  Pennell:  Ancient  Rome,  p.  229- 

9.  Lanciani:  Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome, 
p.   117. 

31.  Unity  in  Exposition. — The  principal  suggestions 
as  to  unity  in  narration  and  description  appl}'  also  to 
exposition.  In  exposition  a  rigid  and  useful  test  of 
unity  is  to  work  out  a  sentence  that  shall  contain  briefly 
the  gist  of  the  whole  theme,  a  "  topic-sentence,"  or  "  key- 
sentence,"  like  that  at  the  beginning  of  A  Roman  Domus, 
page  114-,  or  the  first  sentence  in  The  Experiment.  Such 
a  sentence  may  often  be  a  definition.  Whatever  its  form, 
it  is  a  constant  reminder  of  the  limits  of  the  subject.  If 
the  finished  exposition  fail  to  explain  some  point  touched 
in  the  sentence,  the  sentence  must  be  changed  or  the  expo- 
sition amplified ;  if  part  of  the  exposition  bear  no  rela- 
tion to  the  sentence,  the  sentence  must  again  be  changed 
or  the  matter  left  out.  If  no  key-sentence  can  be  framed 
because  the  exposition  takes  up  such  a  variety  of  subjects, 
the  theme  lacks  unity,  like  the  following  school-compo- 
sition, printed  in  a  Western  newspaper: 

CORN 

Corn  is  a  very  useful  vegetable.  If  it  were  not  for  corn 
there  would  be  no  corn  cakes  with  butter  and  molasses. 
Corn  grows  in  large  fields,  and  you  plough  it  with  a  horse. 


EXPOSITION  121 

There  was  a  man  who  had  a  cornfield,  and  he  had  no  horse, 
but  he  had  a  large  and  faithful  wife,  who  took  care  of  it, 
accompanied  by  a  trusty  dog,  while  he  wrote  poetry  for  the 
papers.  We  ought  to  be  thankful  if  we  have  a  good  wife, 
which  is  much  better  than  hanging  round  saloons  and  wast- 
ing your  time  in  idleness.  Corn  is  also  used  to  feed  hogs 
with,  and  can  be  made  into  cob  pipes,  which  will  make  you 
sick  if  you  are  not  accustomed  to  it.  Let  us  firmly  resolve 
that  we  will  reform  and  lead  a  better  life. 

The  fault  of  a  supei*fluous  introduction  or  conclusion 
is  common.  A  pupil  will  often  spoil  the  unity  of  his  ex- 
position by  beginning  such  a  theme  as  Christmas  at  My 
House,  page  107,  with  the  unnecessary  statement  that 
Christmas  is  the  most  enjoyable  day  in  the  year;  or  The 
Experiment,  with  the  obvious  remark  that  experiments 
in  chemistry  and  physics  are  entertaining.  The  follow- 
ing theme,  with  the  useless  first  sentence,  is  typical: 

THE    MEADOW     LARK 

I  have  always  taken  great  pleasure  in  studying  the 
haunts  and  habits  of  the  more  common  birds  of  this  neigh- 
borhood, and  though  my  knowledge  has  been  small,  I  have 
been  more  than  repaid  by  the  enjoyment  of  the  pursuit.  I 
remember  my  first  meadow  lark's  nest.  I  was  crossing  a 
field  when  a  bird  suddenly  flew  up  almost  from  beneath 
my  feet.  The  triangular  white  patches  on  the  tail  showed 
its  species.  After  searching  a  few  moments  I  found  the 
nest.  A  little  hollow  in  the  ground  had  been  softly  lined 
with  hay  and  feathers^  and  roofed  over  with  a  very  neat 
piece  of  thatch,  which  completely  shielded  and  hid  the  in- 
terior. The  only  opening  was  a  small  hole  on  the  south 
side.  There  were  five  eggs,  white  enamel,  flecked  with 
deep  reddish  brown,  one  of  which  I  now  have.  The  bird 
seems  to  place  a  great  deal  of  confidence  in  the  conceal- 
ment afforded  by  the  roof.  Several  times  I  have  almost 
trodden  on  larks  before  they  have  flown  away. 


122  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

In  the  following  exposition  the  writer  has  indulged 
in  the  luxury  of  a  superfluous  paragraph  at  both  the 
beginning  and  the  end: 

THE    BULL    TERRIER 

My  family  has  always  had  a  good  many  pets,  such  as 
rabbits,  cats^,  and  dogs.  My  sisters  prefer  cats,  but  I  like 
dogs.      My  favorite   is  a  bull  terrier. 

The  bull  terrier  is  a  white  dog,  short-haired,  with  black 
nose  and  black  eyes.  He  stands  from  a  foot  to  eighteen 
inches  high  at  his  fore-shoulders.  As  he  is  a  cross  between 
a  bull-dog  and  a  terrier,  he  has  the  traits  of  both.  He  has 
some  of  the  strength  of  the  bull  combined  with  the  nimble- 
ness  of  the  terrier.  His  head,  jaws,  and  neck  are  not  so 
heavy  as  the  bull's,  but  are  sturdier  than  the  terrier's. 
Usually  he  is  very  good-natured  and  fond  of  playing  with 
children,  but  sometimes  he  is  likely  to  fight  with  other  dogs. 
In  order  to  avoid  wounds  and  cuts,  his  ears  and  tail  are 
often  cropped. 

I  think  it  well  for  children  to  have  pets,  for  thus  they 
learn  to  be  kind  to  dumb  animals.  Boys  and  girls  should 
not  wantonly  injure  any  living  creature,  be  it  a  horse  or  a 
worm. 

Such  introductions  and  conclusions,  though  popular 
with  young  writers,  do  not  bear  immediately  on  the  topic, 
and  therefore  violate  the  principle  of  unity.  A  good 
beginning,  which  plunges  straight  into  the  subject,  is 
frequently  the  key-sentence  itself.  In  Snoxc^Crpstals, 
page  110,  Practical  Christianity,  109,  and  Earth- 
Worms  and  Their  Functions,  113,  and  in  the  two 
following  first  sentences,  each  of  which  outlines  the  essay 
from  which  it  is  taken,  the  key-sentence  is  a  direct  intro- 
duction : 

Reading  without  purpose  is  sauntering,  not  exercise. — 
Sir  Edward  Bulwer  Lytton  in  Readers  and  Writers, 
Cojctoniana. 


EXPOSITION  123 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  men  certainly  of  our  times 
as  a  politician,  or  of  any  age  as  a  philosopher,  was  Frank- 
lin.— Lord  Brougham  in  Dr.  Franklin,  Statesmen  of  the 
Time  of  George  III. 

32.  Order  in  Exposition. — All  the  suggestions  for 
order  in  narration  and  description  are  applicable  also  to 
exposition.  If  the  subject  be  some  process  which  occu- 
pies a  period  of  time,  such  as  the  experiment  with  a 
bomb,  page  109,  the  order  is  simply  that  of  the  steps  of 
the  process,  the  order  of  narration.  The  following  ex- 
ample illustrates  the  method : 

MAKING    QUICK    YEAST    BISCUIT 

The  ingredients  of  quick  yeast  biscuits  are: 

1    compressed   yeast-cake, 

1-3  of  a  cupful  of  water^ 

1  cupful  of  milk^ 

3  cupfuls  of  flour. 

1   tablespoonful   of  sugar, 

1  teaspoonful  of  salt, 

1  tablespoonful  of  butter. 
The  things  needed  in  the  process  of  making  are: 

1  large  pan  nearly  full  of  water, 

3  cups, 

1  flour-sifter, 

1  large  mixing-bowl, 

1  tablespoon, 

1  teaspoon, 

1  knife, 

1  large  mixing-spoon, 

a  cloth  to  cover  the  mixing-bowl^ 

1  biscuit-pan, 

a  little  butter  for  greasing  it, 

a  stove. 

The  first  step  is  to  warm  the  third  of  a  cupful  of  water, 
dissolve  the  compressed  yeast-cake  in  it,  and  let  it  stand 
till  needed.  Then  set  the  cupful  of  milk  and  the  large  pan 
of  water  to  heat. 


124  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

The  second  step  is  to  sift  into  the  mixing-bowl  tlie  tliree 
cupfuls  of  Hour_,  and  mix  in  tlie  tablespoonful  of  sugar  and 
tlie  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Into  this  mixture  of  flour,  sugar, 
and  salt,  cut  with  the  knife  the  tablespoonful  of  butter. 
Keep  up  the  cutting  till  the  butter  has  entirely  disappeared 
in  the  mass.  The  Hour  will  then  be  in  pellets  about  the  size 
of  peas. 

The  third  step  is  to  mix  in  the  dissolved  yeast-cake,  and 
then  the  cupful  of  milk^  which  has  been  lieated  lukewarm. 
Stir  for  two  or  three  minutes,  till  there  is  a  thick,  sticky 
mass.  Some  flour  absorbs  more  liquid,  and  perhaps  a  quar- 
ter of  a  eujiful  more  either  of  milk  or  water  may  be  needed 
in  order  to  stir  all  the  flour  in. 

The  fourth  step  is  to  scrape  all  this  dough  down  into  a 
smooth  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  bowl^  cover  the  bowl 
warmly  with  the  cloth,  and  set  it  into  the  pan  of  water, 
which  has  been  heated  so  that  you  can  just  bear  your  hand 
in  it.  Place  where  the  temperature  will  remain  of  an  even 
warmth. 

Tiie  fifth  step  is  to  mould  the  dough.  When  it  has 
doubled  in  bulk,  usually  in  about  three  hours,  make  it  into 
little  biscuit.  Tlie  way  is,  to  cut  off  a  small  piece  with  a 
knife,  flour  the  hands  as  little  as  possible,  roll  the  piece 
quickly  into  a  ball  about  the  size  of  an  English  walnut,  and 
place  in  the  buttered  biscuit-pan.  Cover  the  biscuit  closely 
and  let  them  rise  again  in  a  warm  place. 

The  sixth  and  last  step  is  baking.  When  the  biscuit 
have  doubled  in  bulk,  usually  in  the  course  of  an  hour, 
bake  them  in  a  hot  oven  about  thirty  minutes,  or  until  they 
are  well  browned  and  fall  out  of  the  pan  when  it  is  turned 
upside  down. 

If  the  exposition  deal  with  some  structure,  as  of  a 
Roman  house,  page  114,  or  of  the  horse,  tlie  sunflower, 
or  a  dynamo,  the  order  may  be  determined  as  in  descrip- 
tion ;  that  Is,  the  general  outline  of  the  structure  may 
be  first  briefly  presented,  and  then  the  parts  according 
to  a  regular  plan.  Such  is  the  method  in  The  Roman 
Domus.  The  outline  is  given  in  the  single  sentence  in 
paragraph  2 : 


EXPOSITION 


125 


Every  domus  was  divided  into  two  principal  sections: 
the  atrium  and  the  peristyliinn,  each  surrounded  by  its  re- 
spective roomSj  which  were  connected  by  an  intermediate 
apartment,  the  tablinum,  and  several  corridors,  fauces. 

The  parts  are  then  explained  in  the  order  which  one 
would  follow  in  going  through  the  domus:  the  atrium 
and  the  rooms  about  it,  the  tablinum,  and  the  peristylium 
and  the  adjoining  rooms.  The  same  method  is  used  in 
the  following  exposition : 


THE    PASTURE    MUSHROOM 


The  common  pasture  mushroom  {Agaricus  campestris) 
resembles  roughly  a  small  umbrella.  The  figure  illustrates 
well  the  principal  parts  of  the  plant:  the  cap,  the  radiating 
plates,  or  gills,  on  the  under  side  of  it,  the  stem,  and  the 
collar,  or  ring,  around  its  upper  end. 


THE    PASTURE    MUSHROOM. 


The  cap  (technically  the  piletis)  is  the  expanded  part 
of  the  mushroom.  It  is  rather  thick,  from  an  inch  and  a 
half  to  four  inches  across,  fleshy  in  consistency,  and  more 
or  less  rounded,  or  convex,  on  the  upper  side.  It  is  usually 
white  in  color,  with  a  surface  generally  smooth,  but  some- 


136  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

times  torn  up  into  triangular  scales.  When  these  scales 
arc  prominent  they  are  often  of  a  dark  color. 

On  the  under  side  of  the  pileus  are  radiating  plates, 
the  gills,  or  lamellae  (singular,  lamella).  In  shape  they 
somewhat  resemble  a  knife-blade,  and  they  are  very  thin 
and  delicate.  They  do  not  quite  touch  the  stem,  but  are 
rounded  at  the  inner  end  and  curve  uj)  into  the  cap.  Tliey 
radiate,  like  sjjokes,  to  the  edge  of  the  cap,  and  the  tri- 
angular sj)aces  between  the  longer  gills  are  occupied  by 
shorter  ones,  so  that  the  combined  surface  of  all  the  gills 
is  very  great.  They  are  at  first  pink,  but  in  age  they 
change  to  a  dark  purple  brown  or  nearly  black,  due  to  the 
immense  number  of  spores  borne  on  the  surfaces. 

The  stem,  or  stipe,  is  attached  to  the  pileus  in  the  centre. 
It  is  cylindrical  in  form,  even,  quite  firm  and  compact, 
though  sometimes  there  is  a  central  core  where  the  threads 
are  looser.  The  stem  is  also  white  and  fleshy,  and  is 
usually  smooth.  The  purpose  of  the  stem  seems  to  be 
that  of  lifting  the  cap  and  gills  up  above  the  ground,  so 
that  the  spores  can  float  in  the  currents  of  air  and  be 
readily  scattered. 

There  is  usually  present  in  the  mature  plant  a  thin  col- 
lar, or  ring  {annulu.s),  around  the  upper  end  of  the  stem. 
It  is  not  a  movable  ring,  but  is  joined  to  the  stem.  It  is 
verj'  delicate_,  easily  rubbed  off",  or  it  may  be  even  washed 
off"  during  rains. — Arranged  from  Studies  of  American 
Fuu-ri  In'  George  Francis  Atkinson. 

If  the  subject  be  neither  a  process  nor  a  structure,  one 
should  hf^'in  with  what  is  simple  and  proceed  to  what  is 
comj)lex  or  difficult.  Such  is  the  order  of  every  text- 
book in  arithnutic:  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
division,  and  fractions.  An  exjjosition  of  baseball  should 
give  first  the  plan  of  the  field  and  the  positions  of  play- 
ers, for  these  points  must  be  explained  before  the  reader 
can  understand  the  rules  for  batting,  base-running,  and 
fielding.  By  this  method  of  proceeding  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex  Professor  BaiTctt  Wendell,  in  his  English 
Composition,  discusses  the  development  of  language: 


EXPOSITION  127 

Perhaps  the  simplest  way  of  realizing  how  all  language 
is  originally  formed  is  just  to  recall  how  we  come  to  know 
peojDle  by  name.  We  meet  for  the  first  time  a  man  of 
whom  we  know  nothing  except  that  he  is  clothed  and  to  all 
appearances  in  his  right  mind.  Somebody  tells  us  that  his 
name  is  John  Jones;  thereafter^  when  we  wish  to  mention 
him,  we  utter  the  monosyllables- — -in  themselves  mere  arbi- 
trary sounds — John  Jones.  Pretty  soon  the  syllables  in 
question  cease  to  be  arbitrary  sounds,  and  arouse  in  our 
minds  the  extremely  specific  idea  of  a  human  individual, 
washed,  dressed,  and  amiably  disposed, — eternally  differ- 
ent, too,  in  certain  aspects  from  any  other  human  being  on 
the  planet.  Or,  to  take  a  quite  different  example :  Some 
years  ago  I  happened  to  be  in  a  small  Sicilian  town,  infested 
by  contagiously  good-humored  beggars.  When  they  pressed 
about  me  inconveniently,  I  turned  on  them,  and  uttered, 
among  other  expressions  unhappily  not  remarkable  for 
politeness,  the  word  skedaddle.  Somehow  it  caught  their 
fancy:  "Skedaddo !"  they  shouted  in  chorus.  When  I 
next  went  out  of  doors,  I  was  greeted  with  shouts  of  "Buon 
giorno,  skedaddo !"  The  rascals  had  named  me,  and  called 
me  by  the  name  for  the  remaining  hours  of  my  stay  among 
them;  and  a  Sicilian  gentleman  subsequently  told  me  that 
very  probably  the  word  skedaddo  might  become,  in  the  town 
in  question,  a  permanent  generic  noun  signifying  a  light- 
haired  foreigner  of  excitable  disposition. 

Just  as  we  name  or  nickname  people,  our  ancestors  have 
named  and  nicknamed  the  various  ideas  which  in  the  course 
of  their  history  they  have  had  occasion  to  express.  Now- 
adays there  are  in  the  world  a  great  many  different  lan- 
guages, many  of  which,  now  mutually  unintelligible,  may 
easily  be  traced  to  a  common  origin ;  from  Latin,  for  ex- 
ample, have  sprung  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese. 
But  the  numerous  changes  whose  accumulation  has  sepa- 
rated and  distinguished  these  modern  languages  have  all 
taken  place  by  means  of  local  and  increasing  differences  in 
use, — in  consent  as  to  what  a  given  sound  shall  mean. 
Thus,  from  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman-French  has  sprung 
the  curious  hybrid  English  with  which  we  are  chiefly  con- 
cerned,— the  articulate  sounds  by  which  the  people  of 
England  and  her  dependencies  have  been  agreed,  during 
the  past  four  or  five  centuries,  to  express  whatever  thoughts 
^nd  emotions  they  have  known. 


128  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

If  the  order  be  not  determined  by  the  steps  of  a  proc- 
ess, by  structure,  or  by  procccdinf:^  from  tlie  simple  to 
the  complex,  the  parts  may  be  arranged  according  to  in- 
creasing interest  or  importance,  in  a  climax.  Thus  Ste- 
venson closes  The  Lantern-Bearers,  page  108,  with  "  the 
essence  of  the  bliss  " ;  Adam  Smith,  in  A  Theory  of 
Wages,  111,  begins  with  small  differences  in  wages 
and  ends  with  wide  differences ;  and  Kingsley,  in  the  fol- 
lowing discussion  of  the  qualifications  of  a  naturalist, 
takes  up  first  physical  strength,  then  moral  traits,  and 
finally  the  most  significant  thing  of  all,  devotion  to  sci- 
ence : 

Let  no  one  think  that  natural  history  is  a  pursuit  fitted 
only  for  effeminate  or  pedantic  men.  The  qualifications 
required  for  a  perfect  naturalist  are  as  many  and  as  lofty 
as  were  required  for  the  perfect  knight-errant  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  For  our  perfect  naturalist  should  be  strong 
in  body ;  able  to  liaul  a  dredge,  climb  a  rock,  turn  a  boulder, 
walk  all  day;  ready  to  face  sun  and  rain,  wind  and  frost, 
and  to  eat  or  drink  thankfully  anything,  however  coarse  or 
meager;  he  should  know  how  to  swim  for  his  life,  to  pull 
an  oar,  sail  a  boat,  and  ride  the  first  horse  which  comes 
to  hand;  and,  finally,  he  should  be  a  thoroughly  good  shot 
and  skilful  fisherman;  and,  if  he  go  far  abroad,  be  able 
on  occasion  to  fight  for  his  life. 

P'or  his  moral  character,  he  must,  like  a  knight  of  old, 
be  first  of  all  gentle  and  courteous,  ready  and  able  to  in- 
gratiate himself  with  the  poor,  the  ignorant,  and  the  sav- 
age; not  only  because  foreign  travel  will  often  otherwise 
be  impossible,  but  because  much  valuable  local  information 
can  be  obtained  from  fishermen,  miners,  hunters,  and  tillers 
of  the  soil.  Next,  he  should  be  brave  and  enterprising,  and 
withal  patient  and  undaunted,  not  merely  in  travel  but  ih- 
vestigation ;  making  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  pass  over 
nothing  through  laziness  or  hastiness.  Moreover,  he  must 
keep  himself  free  from  all  those  perturbations  of  mind 
which  not  only  weaken  energy,  but  darken  and  confuse  the 


EXPOSITION  129 

inductive,  faculty ;  from  haste,  melancholy,  testiness,  pride, 
and  all  those  passions  which  make  men  see  only  what  they 
wish  to  see.  Of  solemn  and  scrupulous  reverence  for  truth 
I  hardly  need  to  speak,  for  it  is  the  very  essence  of  a 
naturalist's  faculty. 

And  last,  the  perfect  naturalist  should  have  self-devo- 
tion ;  the  desire  to  advance  not  himself  and  his  own  fame 
or  wealth,  but  knowledge  and  mankind.  The  spirit  which 
gives  freely,  because  it  knows  that  it  has  received 
freely;  which  communicates  knowledge  without  hope 
of  reward,  without  jealousy  and  mean  rivalry,  to  fel- 
low-students and  to  the  world ; — this  is  the  spirit 
which  is  abroad  among  our  scientific  men,  and  which 
might  well  be  copied  by  those  who  profess  deeper  pur- 
poses and  a  more  exalted  calling  than  the  discovery  of  a 
new  zoophyte  or  the  classification  of  a  moorland  crag. — 
Arranged  from  Glaucus  by  Charles  Kingsley. 

The  logical  order  in  exposition,  as  in  narration  and 
description,  may  sometimes  be  changed  for  the  sake  of  a 
good  beginning.  In  order  to  put  the  best  foot  forward, 
to  show  at  the  outset  that  the  theme  is  not  thoroughly 
dry,  the  first  few  sentences  may  perhaps  touch  briefly  on 
an  amusing  incident,  an  apt  illustration  of  some  phase 
of  the  subject,  or  a  point  of  special  interest;  and  then 
the  matter  may  be  treated  more  fully  in  its  regular  place. 
Thus  James  Bryce,  in  opening  his  chapter  in  The  Amer- 
ican Commonwealth  on  the  pleasantness  of  American  life, 
seizes  upon  a  striking  fact  that  at  once  arrests  attention : 

I  have  never  met  a  European  of  the  upper  or  middle 
classes  who  did  not  express  astonishment  when  told  that 
America  was  a  more  agreeable  place  than  Europe  to  live 
in.  "For  working  men,"  he  would  answer,  "yes;  but  for 
men  of  education  or  property,  how  can  a  new  rough  country, 
where  nothing  but  business  is  talked  and  the  refinements 
of  life  are  only  just  beginning  to  appear,  how  can  such  a 
country  be  compared  with  England  or  France  or  Italy.'*" 


130  ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOX 

It  is  nevertheless  true  tliat  there  are  elements  in  the 
life  of  the  United  States  which  may  well  make  a  European 
of  any  class  prefer  to  dwell  there'  rather  than  in  the  land 
of  his  birtli. 

In  Culture  and  AnarcJnj,  ^Matthew  Arnold  starts  his 
exphuiation  of  culture  as  follows : 

In  one  of  his  speeches  a  short  time  ago,  that  fine  speaker 
and  famous  Liberal,  Mr.  Bright,  took  occasion  to  have  a 
fling  at  the  friends  and  preachers  of  culture.  "People 
who  talk  about  what  they  call  culture!"  said  he  contempt- 
uously; "by  which  they  mean  a  smattering  of  the  two  dead 
languages  of  Greek  and  Latin."  And  he  went  on  to  re- 
mark, in  a  strain  with  which  modern  speakers  and  writers 
have  made  us  very  familiar,  how  poor  a  thing  this  culture 
is,  how  little  good  it  can  do  to  the  world,  and  how  absurd 
it  is  for  its  possessors  to  set  much  store  by  it. 

Another  happy  example  is  the  introduction  to  Car- 
lyle's  essay  on  Jean  Paul  Fricdrich  Richter: 

Dr.  Johnson,  it  is  said,  when  he  first  heard  of  Boswell's 
intention  to  write  a  life  of  him,  announced,  with  decision 
enough,  that,  if  he  thought  Boswell  really  meant  to  write 
his  life,  he  would  prevent  it  by  toking  Boswell's!  That 
great  authors  should  actually  employ  this  preventive  against 
bad  biographers  is  a  tiling  we  would  by  no  means  recom- 
mend ;  but  the  truth  is,  that,  rich  as  we  are  in  biography,  a 
well-written  life  is  almost  as  rare  as  a  well-spent  one;  and 
there  are  certainly  many  more  men  whose  history  deserves 
to  be  recorded,  than  persons  willing  and  able  to  record  it. 

Tlie  following  first  sentence  of  an  exposition  states  a 
striking  fact  that  is  taken  u})  in  more  detail  later: 

On  May  10,  187G.  a  tremendous  wave  swept  the  Pacific 
Ocean  from  Peru  northwards,  westwards,  and  southwards, 
travelling  at   a  rate   many  times  greater  than  that  of  the 


EXPOSITION"  131 

swiftest  express  train. — Richard  A.  Proctor  in  A  Mighty 
^ea-Wave,  Pleasant  Ways  of  Science. 

The  plan  of  an  exposition,  as  on  page  114,  is  con- 
structed like  the  plan  of  a  narration  or  a  description, 
with  main  and  subordinate  heads.  Another  illustration 
is  the  following  plan  of  the  selection  from  Kingsley, 
p.  128: 

1.  Physical  qualifications  of  a  naturalist. 
a.   Strength. 

i.  Ability  to  haul  a  dredge. 

ii.         "        "  climb  a  rock., 

iii.         "        "  turn  a  boulder, 

iv.         "        "  walk  all  day. 
h.  Endurance. 

i.   Readiness  to  face  all  weathers. 

ii.  "  "   eat  anything. 

c.  Skill. 

i.   Knowledge  of  swimming, 
ii.  "  "   rowing. 

iii.  "  "   sailing. 

iv.  "  "   riding. 

v.  "  "   shooting. 

vi.  "  "   fishing. 

vii.  "  "   fighting. 

2.  Moral  qualifications. 
a.  Gentleness. 

i.   Ability  to  ingratiate  oneself  with  the  poor  and 
ignorant. 
6.  Bravery  and  enterprise, 
i.   In  travel, 
ii.    In    investigation. 
c.   Steadiness  of  mind. 

i.   Freedom  from  haste. 
ii.  "  "       melancholy, 

iii.  "  "       testiness. 

iv.  "  "       pride. 

V.  "  "      passion. 


132  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

d.  Reverence  for  the  truth. 

e.  Self-devotion. 

i.   Desire  to   advance  knowledge  rather  than  one- 
self. 

Since  the  main  heads  of  exposition  are  often  more 
difficult  to  arrange  than  those  of  narration  and  descrip- 
tion, Professor  Wendell,  in  his  English  Composition^ 
suggests  the  admirable  device  of  writing  each  main  head 
on  a  separate  card,  filling  in  the  subordinate  heads,  and 
then  shifting  tlie  cards  till  they  are  in  suitable  order  as 
regards  the  several  steps  of  a  process,  or  as  regards  struc- 
ture, simplicity  and  complexit}^  or  interest. 

33.  Proportion  in  Exposition. — The  easiest  way  to  vio- 
late the  principle  of  proportion  is  to  discuss  one  phase 
of  a  subject  fully,  and  then 'slur  over  equally  important 
phases.  If  in  The  Roman  Domus,  page  114,  sections  5 
and  6  had  been  dismissed  in  a  few  words,  the  theme  would 
have  been  disproportioned ;  if  an  explanation  of  foot- 
ball tell  all  about  the  s])ccial  duties  of  backs  and  little 
about  those  of  line  men,  it  has  the  same  fault.  Sum- 
maries of  expositions,  as  of  narratives,  often  contain 
too  much  detail  at  the  beginning  and  too  little  at  the 
end.  If  space  will  not  permit  much  detail,  the  way  to, 
shorten  is  to  omit  minor  matters  throughout.  What- 
ever the  length,  treatment  of  the  several  parts  must  be, 
as  in  a  drawing,  according  to  scale. 

34.  Clearness  in  Exposition. — For  securing  clearness, 
the  suggestions  as  to  simplicity,  maintenance  of  the  point 
of  view,  precise  connectives,  and  apt  comparisons  apply 
to  exposition  as  well  as  to  narration  and  description.  An 
exposition  of  a  complicated  structure — a  violet,  a  bicycle, 
the  plan  of  a  baseball  field — needs  such  a  diagram  as  that 


EXPOSITIOK  133 

on  page  116,  or  such  as  adorn  text-books  on  botany  and 
ph^'sics. 

Whether  diagrams  are  used  or  not,  clearness  demands 
that  general  statements  shall  be  illuminated  by  concrete 
instances.  In  A  Theory  of  Wages,  111,  the  general 
statement  in  each  paragraph  after  the  first  is  made 
clearer  by  a  specific  example :  the  variation  in  wages  ac- 
cording to  ease  or  hardship  of  employment  is  shown  by 
the  difference  between  the  wages  of  tailors  and  weavers ; 
and  so  on.  In  the  third  paragraph  of  Earth-Worms, 
114,  tlie  method  by  which  worms  make  humus  is  ex- 
plained by  an  account  of  an  experiment.  In  Kings- 
ley's  discussion  of  the  naturalist,  128,  the  general 
need  of  bodily  strength  is  enforced  by  telling  the  partic- 
ular tasks  to  be  accomplished,  hauling  a  dredge,  climb- 
ing a  rock,  and  turning  a  boulder.  In  short,  for  effective 
illustration  the  concrete  instance  almost  takes  the  pla.ce 
of  a  picture,  as  in  the  following  italicized  passages: 

To  know  is  one  things  to  do  is  another ;  the  two  things 
are  altogether  distinct.  A  man  knotvs  he  should  get  up 
in  the  morning — he  lies  abed;  he  knows  he  shotdd  not  lose 
his  temper,  yet  he  cannot  keep  it.  A  laboring  man  knows 
he  should  not  go  to  the  ale-house,  and  his  wife  knows  she 
should  not  filch  when  she  goes  out  charing,  but,  nevertheless, 
in  these  cases,  the  consciousness  of  a  duty  is  not  all  one 
with  the  performance  of  it.  There  are  then  large  families 
of  instances^  to  say  the  least,  in  which  men  may  become 
wiser  without  becoming  better. — Cardinal  Newman  in 
Discussions  and  Arguments. 

The  tortures  which  false  religion  makes  men  inflict  upon 
themselves  and  others  are  dreadful  to  think  of.  To  this 
account  we  must  put  all  the  human  sacrifices,  and  espe- 
cially the  burning  of  children  alive,  in  ancient  times,  and 
of  women  with  their  dead  husbands  in  Indostan  at  present. 


134  ENGhJSir    COMPOSITIOIJ" 

In  that  country  there  is  an  order  of  men  called  faquirs, 
or  johgies,  who  make  vows  of  poverty  and  celibacy,  and 
in  order  to  obtain  favor  of  their  god  Brahma,  suffer  tlie 
most  dreadful  tortures.  Soine  stand  for  years  on  one  foot, 
Tviih  their  arms  tied  to  the  beam  of  a  hotise  or  the  branch 
of  a  tree,  till  their  arms  settle  in  that  posture  and  ever 
after  become  useless;  and  some  sit  in  the  sun  with  their 
faces  looking  upwards,  fill  thei/  are  incapable  of  altering 
the  position  of  their  heads. — Joseph  Priestley  in  Lectures 
on  History. 

35.  Interest  in  Exposition. — The  first  step  toward 
making  an  exposition  interesting  is  to  cut  out  dry  or 
unimportant  details.  The  omission  of  the  first  and  tlie 
last  paragraph  of  The  Bull  Terrier,  page  122,  and  of 
the  italicized  words  in  the  following  paragraph,  would 
increase  the  interest: 

MEALS     IN      A     ROMAN      HOUSEHOLD 

With  the  lark  it  was  that  the  Roman  rose.  Not  that  the 
earliest  lark  rises  so  early  in  Latium  as  the  earliest  lark  in 
England;  that  is,  during  the  summer:  but  then,  on  the  other 
hand,  neither  does  it  ever  rise  so  late.  The  Roman  citizen 
was  stirring  with  the  dawn — which,  allotving  for  the 
shorter  longest-day  and  the  longer  shortest-day  of  Rome, 
you  may  call  about  four  in  summer,  about  seven  in  winter. 
Wliy  did  he  do  this?  Because  he  went  to  bed  at  a  very 
early  hour.  But  why  did  he  do  that?  By  backing  in  this 
way  we  shall  surely  back  into  the  very  well  of  truth:  al- 
ways, where  it  is  possible,  let  us  have  the  pourquoi  of  the 
pourquoi.  The  Roman  went  to  bed  early  for  two  remark- 
able reasons.  First,  because  in  Rome,  built  for  a  martial 
destiny,  every  habit  of  life  had  reference  to  the  usages  of 
war.  Every  citizen,  if  he  were  not  a  mere  proletarian  ani- 
mal kept  at  the  public  cost,  with  a  view  to  his  proles,  or 
offspring,  held  himself  a  soldier-elect;  the  more  noble  he 
was,  the  more  was  his  liability  to  military  service;  in  short, 
all  Rome,  and  at  all  times,  was  consciously  "in  procinct." 
Now  it  was  a  principle  of  ancient  warfare  that  every  hour 


EXPOSITION  135 

of  daylight  had  a  triple  worth,  as  valued  against  hours  of 
darkness.  That  was  one  reason — a  reason  suggested  by 
the  understanding.  But  there  was  a  second  reason,  far  more 
remarkable;  aud  iJiis  tvas  a  reason  suggested  by  a  blind 
necessity.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  this  planet  on 
which  we  live,  this  little  industrious  earth  of  ours,  has  de- 
veloped her  wealth  by  slow  stages  of  increase.  She  tvas  far 
from  being  the  rich  little  globe  in  Ccesar's  day  that  she 
is  at  present.  The  earth  in  our  days  is  incalculably  richer, 
as  a  rihole,  than  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne;  and  at  that 
time  she  was  richer,  by  many  million  of  acres,  than  in  the 
era  of  Augustus.  Man,  therefore,  went  to  bed  early  in 
these  ages  simply  because  his  worthy  mother  earth  could 
not  afford  him  candles.  She,  good  old  lady  {or  good  young 
lady,  for  geologists  know  not  whether  she  is  in  that  stage 
of  her  progress  which  corresponds  to  gray  hairs  or  to  in- 
fancy or  to  "a  certain  age") — she,  good  lady,  would  cer- 
tainly, etc. 

For  the  sake  of  interest  as  wen  as  of  clearness  illustra- 
tions and  comparisons  should,  when  the  subject  permits, 
be  numerous  and  should  be  drawn  from  personal  experi- 
ence. The  example  quoted  on  page  133,  "  A  man  knows 
he  should  get  up  in  the  morning — ^lie  lies  abed,"  refers 
to  an  experience  which  everybody  has  had,  and  therefore 
interests  everybody.  The  same  quality  appears  in  the 
following  paragraphs : 

Review  writing  but  exemplifies  the  casual  character  of 
modern  literature :  everything  about  it  is  temporary  and 
fragmentary.  Look  at  tlie  railway  stall:  you  see  books  of 
every  color — blue,  yellow,  crimson,  "ring-streaked,  speck- 
led, and  spotted" — on  every  subject,  in  every  style,  of 
every  opinion,  with  every  conceivable  difference,  celestial 
or  sublunary,  maleficent,  beneficent — but  all  small.  People 
take  their  literature  in  morsels,  as  they  take  sandwiches  on 
a  journey.  The  volumes  at  least,  you  can  see  clearly,  are 
not  intended  to  be  everlasting. — Walter  Bagehot  in  The 
First  Edinburgh  Reviewers. 


]36  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 

When  tlie  atoms  of  a  body  are  separated  by  force  of 
heat  only,  the  substance  is  said  to  be  melted;  if  the}'  are 
separated  by  any  other  substance,  as  particles  of  sugar  by 
water,  they  are  said  to  be  dissolved.  Nearly  everything 
will  melt,  under  a  sufficient  heat,  like  wax.  Limestone 
melts  (under  pressure);  sand  melts;  granite  melts;  and  the 
lava  of  a  volcano  is  a  mixed  mass  of  many  kinds  of  rocks, 
melted.  Water  melts  at  what  we  call  the  freezing,  but 
might  just  as  wisely,  thougli  not  as  conveniently,  call  the 
melting  point.  Glass  melts  at  a  greater  heat,  and  gold 
needs  still  more  heat  to  melt  it.  Now  in  any  of  these 
cases,  either  of  melted  or  dissolved  bodies,  the  particles  are 
usually  separated  from  each  other  either  by  heat  or  by 
an  intermediate  substance. — Arranged  from  Ethics  of  iJie 
Dust  by  John  Ruskin. 

In  exposition,  as  in  narration  and  description,  the  mat- 
ter should  also,  when  possible,  deal  in  personal  sensations 
and  thus  appeal  to  the  reader's  emotions,  his  sense  of 
humor  or  his  sympathy.  The  Lontern-Bearers,  page 
108,  is  full  of  sucli  turns  as  "  They  smclled  noisomely  of 
blistered  tin;  they  never  burned  aright,  though  they 
would  always  burn  our  fingers."  The  last  paragraph 
of  The  Roman  Domus,  119,  gives  the  personal  im- 
pression of  the  domus.     Here  are  two  more  examples : 

HUNTING    WITH    A    BLEAT 

I  drew  near  to  a  group  of  rangers  and  found  they  were 
discussing  the  merits  of  a  stratagem  sometimes  used  in 
deer  hunting.  This  consists  in  imitating,  with  a  small  in- 
strument called  a  bleat,  the  cry  of  the  fawn,  so  as  to  lure 
the  doe  within  reach  of  the  rifle.  There  are  bleats  of 
various  kinds,  suited  to  calm  or  windy  weather  and  to  the 
age  of  the  fawn.  The  poor  animal,  deluded  by  them  in 
its  anxiety  about  its  young,  will  sometimes  advance  close 
up  to  the  hunter. 

"I  once  bleated  a  doe,"  said  a  young  hunter,  "until  it 
came    within    twenty   yards   of    me   and    presented   a   sure 


EXPOSITION"  137 

mark.  I  levelled  my  rifle  three  times^  but  had  not  the 
heart  to  shoot^  for  the  poor  doe  looked  so  wistfully  that  it 
in  a  manner  made  my  heart  yearn.  I  thought  of  my  own 
mother  and  how  anxious  she  used  to  be  about  me  when  I 
was  a  child;  so  to  put  an  end  to  the  matter  I  gave  a  halloo 
and  started  the  doe  out  of  rifle  shot  in  a  moment." 

"And  you  did  right,"  cried  honest  old  Ryan.  "For  my 
part  I  never  could  bring  myself  to  bleating  deer.  I've 
been  with  hunters  who  had  bleats^  and  have  made  them 
throw  them  away.  It  is  a  rascally  trick  to  take  advantage 
of  a  mother's  love  for  her  young." — Washington  Irving 
in  A  Tour  on  the  Prairies. 

on  reading  old  books 

I  do  not  think  altogether  the  worse  of  a  book  for  having 
survived  the  author  a  generation  or  two.  I  have  more  con- 
fidence in  the  dead  than  the  living.  Sometimes  the  sight 
of  an  odd  volume  of  these  good  old  English  authors  on  a 
stall,  or  the  name  lettered  on  the  back  among  others  on  the 
shelves  of  a  library,  revives  a  whole  train  of  ideas  and 
sets  "the  puppets  dallying."  Twenty  j'ears  are  struck  off 
the  list^  and  I  am  a  child  again.  Oh  !  what  a  privilege  to 
be  able  to  transport  oneself,  by  the  help  of  a  little  musty 
duodecimo,  to  the  time  when  "ignorance  was  bliss/'  and 
when  we  first  got  a  peep  at  the  raree-show  of  the  world 
through  the  glass  of  fiction — gazing  at  mankind,  as  we  do 
at  the  wild  beasts  in  a  menagerie,  through  the  bars  of  their 
cages;  or  at  curiosities  in  a  museum,  that  we  must  not 
touch.  For  mj^sclf,  not  only  are  the  old  ideas  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  work  brought  back  to  my  mind  in  all  their 
vividness,  but  the  old  associations  of  the  faces  and  persons 
of  those  I  then  knew,  the  place  where  I  sat  to  read  the 
vohmie,  the  day  when  I  got  it,  the  feeling  of  the  air,  the 
fields,  the  sky  return,  and  all  my  early  impressions  with 
them.  This  is  better  to  me — those  places,  those  times, 
those  persons,  and  those  feelings  that  come  across  me  as 
I  retrace  the  story  and  devour  the  page,  are  to  me  better  far 
than  the  wet  sheets  of  the  last  new  novel  from  the  Ballan- 
tyne  Press,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Minerva  Press  in  Leaden- 
hall  Street. — Arranged  from  The  Plain  Speaker  by  Will- 
iam Hazlitt. 


138  EN^GLISH    COMPOSITION 


QUESTIONS   AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  briefly  the  various  kinds  of  exposition. 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  material  for  exposition  ? 

3.  Give  a  list  of  ten  subjects  for  exposition  drawn  from  your  per- 
sonal experience. 

4.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  300  to  700  words  on  one  of  your 
subjects  or  on  one  of  the  following : 

Caring  for  a  Furnace. 

Sweeping  a  Room. 

Washing   Dislies. 

Making  Molasses  Candy. 

Making  Douglinuts. 

Cooking  a  Turkey. 

Making  a  Shirt- Waist. 

A  Toucli-Down. 

Playing  Quarter-Back. 

Playing  Golf. 

Laying  out  a  Croquet  Ground. 

Making  a  Kite. 

Tandem  Driving. 

Learning  to  Swim. 

Fishing  for  Trout. 

How  to  Rig  a  Catboat. 

Shooting  Snipe. 

The  Care  of  a  Rifle. 

Pitching  a  Tent. 

Training  for  a  Bicycle  Race. 

How  to  Paint  a  Wagon. 

How  to  Lay  Shingles. 

Making  Grape  Baskets. 

Charcoal-Making. 

Laying  Concrete  Sidewalks. 

I\Licadamizing  a  Road. 

Making  Tin  Cans. 

Canning  Peas. 

Making  a  Silver   Spoon. 

The  Manufacture  of  Woollen  Cloth. 

Manufacturing  Rubber    Boots. 

Building  a  Locomotive. 


EXPOSITION  139 

Refining  Petroleum. 

The  Manuf<acture  of   Illuminating  Gas. 

The  Manufacture  of  Artificial  Ice. 

Loading  Beef  on  an  Ocean  Liner. 

Running  a  Shoe  Store. 

Selling  Subscription  Books. 

Finding  a  Bee-Tree. 

ISIaking   Maple   Sugar. 

Making   Butter. 

Cider-]Making. 

Keeping  a  Lawn  in  Order. 

How  to  Raise  Flowers. 

The  Cultivation  of  Tobacco. 

Asparagus  Culture. 

Grafting  Fruit-Trees. 

The  Care  of  Honey-Bees. 

Raising  Pigeons  for  Market. 

Poultry  Feeding. 

Haying. 

Harvesting  Wheat. 

Logging. 

The  Care  of  a  Trotting  Horse. 

Breeds  of  Horses  for  Farm-Work. 

Cleaning  a  Harness. 

Plans  for  a  Model  Barn. 

The  Advantages  of  Silo. 

5.  Give  a  list  of  ten  subjects  for  exposition  drawn  from  books. 

6.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  300  to  700  words  on  one  of  yom 
subjects  or  on  one  of  the  following : 

Theories  of  Electricity. 

The  Telephone. 

A  Frictional  Electrical  Machine. 

Making  a  Storage  Battery. 

Putting  up  a  Telegraph  Line. 

Wiring  a  House  for  Electric  Bells. 

Copper-Plating  by  Electricity. 

The  Theory  of  Light. 

Uses   of   INIicroscopes. 

The  Structure  of  the  Human  Eye. 


140  EXGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Advances  in  the  Science  of  Chemistry  since   1820. 

The  Atomic  Theory. 

Developing  a  Photograpliic  Negative. 

The  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Producing  Liquid  Air. 

The  Principle  of  the  Steam-Engine. 

Mining  Silver. 

Quarrying  Bluestone. 

Natural  (xas  and  its  Uses. 

Peat  Bogs. 

IMethods  of  Irrigation. 

The  Cause  of  Hot  Springs. 

Theories  as  to  the  Cause  of  Volcanoes. 

Why  the  Tide  Rises. 

What  a  Storm-Centre  is. 

How  to  Find  the  Botanical  Name  of  a  Plant. 

Collecting  and  Pressing  Wild  Flowers. 

Caring  for  House-Plants. 

The  Germination  of  a  Seed. 

The  Bud  Propagation  of  Plants. 

The  Arrangement  of  Leaves  on  the  Stem  of  a  Plant. 

The  Robin. 

Stuffing  and  Mounting  a  Bird. 

^Faking  and    Stocking  an   Aquarium. 

The  Flying   Squirrel. 

The  Preparation  of  a  Beetle  for  the  Cabinet. 

The  Extermination  of  the  Gypsy  Moth. 

Habits  of  Ants. 

Microbes. 

Solving  Quadratic  Equations. 

Flow  to  Use  a  Card  Catalogue. 

The  Value  of  Cooking  and  Sewing  as  School  Studies. 

The  Place  of  Manual  Training  in  a  School  Curriculum. 

The  Equipment  of  a   Sunday-School  Kindergarten. 

Conducting  a  Singing-School. 

Book-Keeping. 

The  Collection  of  Notes  and  Drafts  by  a  National  Bank. 

How  New  Money  gets  into  Circulation. 

How  to   Patent  an   Invention. 

A  Municipal    Election. 

The  Australi,-in  Ballot  System. 

Passing  a  Law  through  the  State  Legislature. 


EXPOSTTTON"  141 

Powers  of  the  Speaker  of  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 

Pensions  in  the  United  States. 

How   Immigrants   are   Admitted  to  America. 

Results  of  Industrial  Cooperation. 

The  Doctrine  of  State  Socialism. 

Methods   of  the  Salvation  Army. 

The  Mound  Builders. 

The  ClitF  Dwellers. 

The  Construction  of  Ancient  Greek  Theatres. 

School  Life  at  Athens. 

A  Stoic  and  a  Christian. 

The  Education  of  a  Roman  Boy. 

A  Roman  Banquet. 

The  Work  of  John  Howard. 

The  Work  of  Wilberforce. 

Intolerance  in  Colonial  New  England. 

Reasons  for  the  Success  of  the  American  Revolution. 

Causes  of  the  Civil  War. 

Theories  as  to  the  Authorship  of  the  Homeric  Poems. 

Shakspere's  Richard  III.  and  the  Richard  III.  of  His- 
tory. 

Richelieu  in  Bulwer  and  in  History. 

Summary  of  Lowell's  Essay  on  Democracy. 

[Note. — For  some  of  these  subjects  the  material  may 
he  drawn  partly  from  books  and  partly  from  personal  ex- 
perience. When  books  are  used  as  authorities^  a  list  of 
them  should  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  theme^  as  on  page 
119.] 

7.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  securing  unity  in  expo- 
sition ? 

8.  What  is  a  good  test  of  unity  in  exposition  ? 

9.  Work  out  a  key-sentence  for  Christma.s  at  My  House,  page 
107;  for  The  L3.ntern-Bea.rers,  108;  A  Theory  of  Wages,  m  ;  Mak- 
ing Quick  Yeast  Biscuit,  123  ;  and  The  Pasture  Mushroom,  125. 

10.  Point  out  the  respect  in  which  the  following  expositions  lack 
unity : 


143  ENGLISn   COMPOSITION 

FERMENTATION    OF    SUGAR 

An  interesting  experiment  was  performed  in  the  chemis- 
try class  this  mornings  showing  the  way  in  which  sugars 
ferment.  Cane  sugar  has  to  have  yeast  added  to  start  fer- 
mentation. A  solution  of  cane  sugar  is  heated  to  about 
ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit^  with  care  to  have  the  solution 
at  the  right  strength  and  to  keep  it  at  a  luiiform  tempera- 
ture. Then  yeast  is  added.  The  whole  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  short  lengtli  of  time^  when  fermentation  sets  in. 
This  may  be  seen  by  the  bubbles  containing  gas.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  the  right  proportion  of  sugar  in  the 
solution^  for  no  fermentation  will  take  place  if  the  solu- 
tion contains  more  than  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The 
amount  of  yeast  used  does  not  affect  the  experiment^  pro- 
viding enough  is  used  to  start  the  fermentation. 

There  are  many  other  interesting  things  about  cane 
sugar.  When  I  .was  in  Louisiana  two  years  ago  I  visited 
a  sugar  plantation,  and  saw  the  cutting  and  grinding  of 
the  cane.  The  negroes  who  did  the  work  are  very  jolly. 
The  cane  is  tall  and  looks  a  little  like  corn. 

VENOMOUS    SNAKES 

Professor  Bumpus  has  a  power  of  apt  illustration,  a 
ready  wit,  and  an  interesting  way  of  putting  things,  as 
anyone  who  lieard  his  recent  lecture  will  readily  believe. 
Moreover,  in  his  courses  he  brings  out  many  interesting 
facts  about  the  animal  world  and  gives  a  good  deal  of  prac- 
tical information.  The  other  day  he  gave  us  some  points 
about  poisonous  snakes,  which  I  do  not  think  are  generally 
known.  When  bitten  by  a  snake,  one  should  notice  whether 
there  are  two  marks  left  or  more.  If  more  than  two,  the 
snake  was  harmless.  The  venom  of  a  snake  will  do  no 
harm  taken  into  the  mouth  if  the  alimentary  system  is 
healthy.  So  it  is  well  often  to  break  open  with  a  knife 
the  wound  made  by  a  venomous  snake,  and  to  suck  out  the 
poison  from  its  little  pocket.  If  the  hand  is  bitten  the 
wrist  may  be  tightly  bandaged  to  save  the  rest  of  the  body 
at  least;  and  if  the  ])oison  is  admitted  in  minute  quantities 
by  loosening  the  bandage  now  and  then,  the  system  will 
probably  bear  it  and  no  serious  harm  result. 


EXPOSITION"  143 


LIGHTED    BUOYS 


Everyone  who  has  ever  been  on  the  waters  of  our  bays 
and  rivers  knows  what  the  ordinary  spar-buoys  look  like. 
Most  of  these  people  have  also  seen  bell-buoys  and  can- 
buoys;  a  few  may  have  seen  whistling  buoys.  Until  a  year 
or  two  ago,  however^  no  one  had  heard  of  such  a  thing  as 
a  lighted  buo}^,  except  such  as  those  near  New  York,  which 
have  electric  wires  carried  out  to  thein  from  the  shore. 
Now  buoys  are  made  which  burn  gas.  There  are  two  or 
three  of  them  in  Narragansett  Bay,  and  there  will  soon 
be  more.  I  saw  one  last  summer  when  we  were  camping 
out  on  the  shores  of  the  bay.  There  were  six  of  us  hi 
the  party,  but  one  sprained  his  ankle  and  had  to  go  home. 
One  morning  we  all  rowed  out  and  examined  the  buoy.  The 
bottom  part  is  a  great  .boiler-like  receptacle,  made  of  iron 
plates  riveted  together.  In  this,  gas  is  stored  under  great 
pressure.  Above  this  can  rises  the  lantern,  supported  by 
four  stout  legs,  like  the  bell  on  a  bell-buoy.  The  lantern 
itself  is  strongly  supported  by  a  stout  steel  framework  all 
about  it.  The  gas  is  fed  automatically  by  means  of  check- 
valves,  wliich  keep  the  pressure  steady.  The  light  burns 
day  and  night  for  nine  months  before  the  gas  is  exhausted; 
then  the  reservoir  is  refilled.  At  night  the  light  may  be 
seen  for  a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles. 


THE    CREDIT    SYSTEM    IN    THE     STATE     REFORM    SCHOOL 

When  a  boy  enters  the  State  Reform  School  he  is  given 
a  bank-book  in  which  he  is  put  down  as  owing  the  school 
four  hundred  dollars.  Every  week  that  his  conduct  is 
faultless  he  is  credited  with  five  dollars.  Thus,  if  nothing 
unusual  happens  and  the  boy  is  not  reproved  at  all,  his 
term  will  expire  in  eighty  weeks.  The  process  is  not  so 
simple,  however,  for  the  boj^s  are  not  angels  and  they 
often  get  into  mischief.  Any  officer  may  impose  a  fine  as 
large  as  twenty  dollars  for  bad  behavior,  and  the  superin- 
tendent may  impose  any  fine.  So  if  the  boy  is  troublesome 
his  time  in  the  school  is  lengthened.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  a  boy  does  any  act  of  special  merit  he  is  credited  for  it. 


144  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

When  I  visited  tlie  school  a  number  of  boys  were  doing 
extra  work  for  our  entertainment^  and  they  received  due 
credit  for  it.  A  boy  who  finds  and  returns  a  set  of  keys 
is  credited  witli  twenty  dollars.  This  interesting  credit 
system  seems  to  work  very  well. 

There  are  many  other  things  worth  knowing  about  the 
school.  The  buildings  are  of  stone,  and  are  carefully 
guarded ;  but  the  rules  of  discipline  are  not  so  strict  as  in 
a  prison.  More  time  is  devoted  to  learning  trades  and 
studying  books. 

11.  What  is  often  a  good  beginning? 

12.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  fifty  to  loo  words  that  begins 
with  the  key-sentence. 

13.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  the  order  of  material 
in  exposition  ? 

14.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  fifty  to  100  words  in  which  the 
order  is  that  of  time. 

15.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  fifty  to  100  words  in  which  the 
order  is  determined  as  in  description. 

16.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  100  to  150  words  in  which  the 
method  is  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

17.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  150  to  200  words  in  which  the 
parts  are  arranged  according  to  increasing  interest  or  importance. 

18.  Point  out  the  departures  from  good  order  in  the  following  ex- 
positions : 

now    GEfiiMAN     SCHOOLS    ARE    RUN 

When  a  child  enters  a  German  school  he  must  present 
certificates  of  birth,  baptism,  and  vaccination.  One  day, 
for  example,  two  little  American  boys  who  had  entered  a 
German  scl)ool  came  running  to  their  mother,  very  nnich 
excited.  "Mamma,"  cried  one,  "what  does  'heathen'  mean? 
Teacher  asked  us  this  morning  for  our  baptism  certificate ; 
and  when  I  told  him  we  were  not  baptized,  he  said.  'What ! 
are  you  heatlien  over  there  in  America  ?'  " 

There  are  no  entirely  free  schools  in  the  country.  What 
they  call  public  schools  require  a  small  tuition  fee.  The 
very  poorest  classes  attend  these  schools.  The  private 
schools  rank  very  high  among  educational  institutions. 
The  teachers  are  poorly  paid,  but  their  salary  continues 
through  vacation  time. 


EXPOSITION"  145 


EASTER   TIME    IN    SOUTHERN    GERMANY 

Catholicism  is  very  strong  in  Southern  Germany,  and 
Easter  is  naturally  a  great  time  of  the  year  there.  On 
Good  Friday  and  the  Saturday  before  Easter  one  may  see 
in  every  church  representations  of  the  sepulchre  and  the 
dead  Lord  lying  there;  and  all  through  the  day  people 
come  to  pray. 

Many  days  beforehand,  however,  the  preparations  for 
the  festival  begin.  The  house  must  be  made  immaculately 
clean ;  and  if  any  new  furniture  is  to  be  purchased  at  all, 
it  is  bought  for  this  occasion.  Every  member  of  the  family 
must,  if  possible,  have  something  new  to  wear.  The  stores 
are  filled  with  Easter  novelties,  and  the  bakeries  piled 
with  a  certain  kind  of  cake  never  eaten  at  other  times  of 
the  year. 

Easter  morning  the  sepulchres  are  generally  covered 
with  flowerSj  and  the  representation  of  the  dead  body  is 
taken  away.  At  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  a  breakfast  is 
prepared,  consisting  of  unleavened  bread,  boiled  ham, 
beautifully  decorated  Easter  eggs,  and  red  wine.  The 
priests  partake  of  the  food  with  their  parishioners,  and 
confer  on  them  an  Easter  blessing.  Services,  which  con- 
tinue all  day,  are  attended  by  people  who  never  venture 
outside  the  house  at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  All  in 
all,  Easter  is  a  very  blessed  season  to  these  Germans  and 
signifies  to  them  the  dawn  of  a  new  life. 

19.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  100  to  150  words  that  has  a  good 
beginning. 

20.  Draw  plans  of  ^e  Experiment,  page  109;  Sno'W-Crystals, 
no;  A  Theory  of  Wages^  m  ;  Earth-Worms  and  Their  Functions, 
113  ;  Making  Quick  Yeast  Biscuit,  123,  and  The  'Pasture  Mushroom, 
125. 

21.  What  are  the  common  violations  of  the  principle  of  propor- 
tion ? 

22.  Write  a  well-proportioned  summary  of  the  first  chapter  of  this 
book  ia  250  to  300  words. 

23.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  securing  clearness? 

24.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  150  to  200  words,  accompanied  by 
a  sketch,  or  diagram. 

25.  What  is  the  defect  of  the  following  piece  of  exposition? 


146  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


GROUND  RENTS 

Why  are  ground  rents  paid  for  some  locations  and  not 
for  others?  In  general  terms  the  difference  in  desirability 
based  on  the  social  service  which  they  render,  or  conversely, 
the  sacrifice  which  they  save.  The  land  which  is  most  con- 
venient is  first  utilized,  and  that  wliich  is  less  convenient  is 
made  of  service  in  accordance  with  its  diminishing  facil- 
ities. Since  convenience  means  economy  in  time  and  effort, 
the  value  in  any  piece  of  land  will  represent  the  cost  saved 
or  the  pleasure  obtained  by  its  use,  ns  compared  with  the 
use  of  land  worth  nothing,  multiplied  by  the  number  and 
economic  quality  of  tlie  people  for  whom  the  saving  is 
made.  Thus  the  value  of  all  urban  land  ranges  from  that 
which  least  serves  the  smallest  number  of  people  of  the 
lowest  economic  quality,  up  to  that  which  best  serves  the 
largest  number  of  people  of  the  highest  economic  quality. 

26.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  giving  an  exposition 
interest  ? 

27.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  100  to  150  words,  containing  an 
illustration  drawn  from  personal  experience. 

28.  Write  an  exposition  of  from  150  to  200  words  on  some  subject 
that  shall  appeal  to  the  reader's  emotions. 

29.  Can  you  rewrite  the  following  exposition,  and,  by  cutting  out 
material  or  adding  new,  make  it  more  interesting  ? 

THE    ART    OF    CLEANING    A    ROOM 

Although  house-cleaning  appeals  to  one  as  a  very  simple 
undertaking,  simple  inasmuch  as  time  and  strength  are 
the  only  qualifications,  yet  there  are  a  great  many  people 
ignorant  of  the  details  necessary  for  cleaning  a  room;  not 
so  much  the  sweeping  as  the  preparation  and  the  attention 
to  the  various  articles  in  the  room. 

The  first  act  in  cleaning  a  room  is  to  remove  all  orna- 
ments and  small  pieces  of  furniture.  It  is  better,  for  two 
reasons,  to  dust  these  articles  before  removing  them:  first, 
you  are  generally  obliged  to  put  them  in  an  adjoining  room, 
and  you  will  be  less  likely  to  disarrange  it  if  you  care- 
fully remove  the  dust  from  the  articles;  and  secondly,  you 


EXPOSITION  147 

have  a  great  deal  more  energy  at  the  start  than  at  the 
finish,  and  you  will  be  much  relieved  to  be  able  to  bring 
back  the  things  without  having  to  dust  them.  Draperies 
should  be  immediately  hung  on  the  clothes-line,  so  that  the 
wind  may  remove  some  of  the  dust.  The  rugs  may  be 
thrown  on  the  grass  if  it  is  summer,  or  on  the  back  stoop 
or  clothes-line  in  winter.  Everything  remaining  in  the 
room  should  be  covered  with  pieces  of  cloth  or  with  old 
newspapers.  The  blinds  should  be  thrown  back,  the  win- 
dow-shades rolled  up  as  high  as  possible,  and  the  windows 
opened  both  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 

It  is  now  time  to  get  the  things  necessary  for  your  work, 
and  these  will  vary  in  number  according  to  the  individual's 
likes  and  pocket-book.  You  must  have  a  good  firm  broom, 
a  dust-pan  and  brush,  a  water-pail  and  cloths  for  washing 
the  windows,  and  a  duster.  A  room  may  be  put  in  good 
order  with  the  above-named  articles,  but  you  can  procure 
numerous  brushes,  each  to  perform  a  special  office.  There 
are  a  number  of  soaps  and  powders  on  the  market  for 
brightening  the  windows,  but  I  think  a  few  drops  of  am- 
monia in  a  pail  of  cold  water  will  do  the  work. 

With  these  things  at  hand,  one  can  turn  to  the  sweeping. 
Half  a  cupful  of  moist  tea-leaves  scattered  over  the  carpet 
and  allowed  to  remain  a  few  minutes  before  the  sweeping 
begins  will  freshen  it  up  considerably.  The  carpet  should 
now  be  swept  and  the  sweepings  gathered  into  the  dust- 
pan. It  is  a  good  idea  to  burn  this  litter  at  once.  The 
mouldings  should  now  be  brushed  and  the  dust  allowed  to 
settle. 

While  waiting  for  this  you  can  attend  to  your  curtains 
and  draperies.  The  wind  generally  shakes  all  the  dust 
from  the  lace  curtains,  but  the  heavy  draperies  and  table- 
covers  require  careful  brushing  with  a  whisk-broom.  If 
you  wish  to  clean  the  rugs  now,  the  curtains  should  be  taken 
in  so  that  they  may  not  gather  dust  from  the  rugs.  There 
are  two  ways  to  clean  rugs :  you  can  either  lay  the  rug  down 
and  sweep  it,  or  you  can  put  it  across  the  line  and  beat  it 
with  a  carpet-beater. 

This  being  done,  we  return  to  the  room  and  dust  it  thor- 
oughly. Then  the  windows  and  all  mirrors  and  chandelier- 
globes  should  be  washed. 


148  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

The  broom^  brushes,  and  dusters  may  now  be  taken  out. 
You  will  need  to  remove  all  dust  and  threads  that  still 
cling  to  the  broom,  and  to  knock  the  dust  from  the  brushes. 
The  dusters  should  be  washed  out  in  cold  water  with  com- 
mon soap  and  hung  out  to  dry.  The  cloths  covering  the 
furniture  do  not  require  washing  after  every  sweeping, 
but  they  should  be  well  shaken.  The  windows  may  now 
be  closed,  the  shades  lowered,  and  the  curtains  and  rugs 
put  in  their  places.  The  rest  of  the  furniture  may  now 
be  brought  in. 


CHAPTER    V 

ARGUMENTATION 

36.  Kinds  of  Argumentation. — Any  course  of  reason- 
ing to  prove  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a  statement,  to 
change  a  person's  belief,  or  to  influence  his  behavior,  is 
argumentation.  The  proof  that  the  square  described  on 
the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  on  the  other  two  sides,  or  that  each 
molecule  of  water  contains  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and 
one  of  oxygen,  is  one  kind  of  argumentation ;  the  proof 
that  the  American  Indian  came,  or  did  not  come,  origi- 
nally from  Asia,  that  capital  punishment  should,  or 
should  not,  be  abolished,  that  a  man  should,  or  should 
not,  vote  the  Democratic  ticket,  or  that  a  single  long  ses- 
sion of  school  is,  or  is  not,  better  for  the  pupils  than  two 
sessions,  is  also  argumentation.  The  questions  about  the 
triangle  and  the  water  have  but  one  side;  that  is,  the 
course  of  reasoning  leads  to  conclusions  upon  which  all 
well-informed  people  agree ;  but  the  other  questions  have 
two  sides,  and  the  conclusions  are  disputable.  In  theme- 
writing  these  one-sided  questions  may  better  be  treated 
as  exposition,  and  the  practice  in  argumentation  re- 
stricted to  questions  which  have  two  sides,  and  which 
call  for  gi'eater  ingenuity  in  arrangement  of  matter. 

37.  Sources  of  Material. — The  sources  of  material  are, 
as  in  exposition,  personal  experience  and  books,  but  most 
arguments  written  in  school  contain  more  or  less  from 

149 


150  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

books.  The  range  of  subjects  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing examples  and  by  the  list  of  questions  at  the  end  of 
the  chapter: 

wood's  coinage 

It  having  been  many  A'ears  since  copper  halfpence  or 
farthings  were  last  coined  in  this  kingdom  of  Ireland,  they 
have  been  for  some  time  very  scarce.  Several  applications 
were  made  to  England  that  we  might  have  lihirty  to  coin 
new  ones,  as  in  former  times  we  did,  but  they  did  not 
succeed.  At  last  one  Mr.  Wood,  a  hardware  dealer,  pro- 
cured a  patent  imder  his  majesty's  seal  to  coin  =£  108,000 
in  copper  for  this  kingdom,  which  patent,  however,  did 
not  oblige  anyone  here  to  take  them  urdess  he  pleased. 

Now  yon  must  know  that  the  halfpence  and  farthings 
in  England  pass  for  very  little  more  than  thej^  are  worth 
in  uncoined  metal ;  and  if  you  should  beat  them  to  pieces 
and  sell  them  to  the  brasier,  you  would  not  lose  nuich  above 
a  penny  in  a  shilling.  But  Mr.  Wood  made  his  halfjience 
of  such  base  metal  and  so  much  smaller  than  the  English 
ones,  that  the  brasier  would  hardly  give  you  above  a  penny 
of  good  money  for  a  shilling  of  his.  We  have  a  positive 
demonstration  of  Wood's  fraudulent  practices  upon  this 
point.  I  have  seen  a  large  quantity  of  these  halfpence 
weighed  by  a  very  skilful  person,  and  the  assay  has  like- 
wise been  inquired  into  by  very  experienced  men.  They 
estimate  that  the  coinage  may  perhajjs  make  in  all  £92,218 
loss  to  the  public;  for  Mr.  Wood  expects  in  the  process  of 
exchange  to  get  for  this  trash  our  good  gold  and  silver. 

But  this  is  not  the  worst;  for  Mr. Wood,  when  he  pleases, 
may  by  stealth  send  over  another  £108,000  and  buy  all 
our  goods  for  say  eleven  parts  in  twelve  under  the  value. 
For  example,  if  a  hatter  sells  a  dozen  of  hats  for  five 
shillings  apiece,  which  amounts  to  three  pounds,  and  re- 
ceives the  payment  in  Wood's  coin,  he  really  receives  only 
the  value  of  five  shillings. 

This  Wood,  soon  after  his  patent  was  passed,  sends  over 
a  great  many  barrels  of  those  halfpence  to  Cork  and  other 
seaport  towns;  and  to  get  them  off,  offered  £100  in  this 
coin  for  £70  or  £80  in  silver.      But  the  collectors  of  the 


ARGUMENTATIOISr  151 

king's  customs  very  honestly  refused  to  take  them,  and  so 
did  ahnost  everybody  else.  And  since  the  Irisli  parliament 
has  condemned  them  and  desired  the  king  that  they  might 
be  stopped,  all  the  kingdom  do  abominate  them. 

But  Wood  is  still  working  underhand  to  force  his  half- 
pence upon  us;  and  if  he  can,  by  the  help  of  his  friends  in 
England,  prevail  so  far  as  to  get  an  order  that  the  com- 
missioners and  collectors  of  the  king's  money  shall  receive 
them,  and  that  the  army  is  to  be  paid  with  them,  then 
he  thinks  his  work  shall  be  done.  And  this  is  the  diffi- 
culty you  will  be  under  in  such  a  case;  for  the  common 
soldier,  when  he  goes  to  the  market  or  alehouse  will  offer 
this  money ;  and  if  it  be  refused,  perhaps  he  will  swagger 
and  hector  and  threaten  to  beat  the  butcher  or  alewife,  or 
take  the  goods  by  force  and  throw  them  the  bad  halfpence. 
In  this  and  the  like  cases  the  shopkeeper  or  victualler  or 
any  other  tradesman  has  no  more  to  do  than  to  demand 
ten  times  the  price  of  his  goods  if  it  is  to  be  paid  in  Wood's 
money;  for  example,  twenty  pence  of  that  money  for  a 
quart  of  ale,  and  so  in  all  things  else,  and  not  part  with 
his  goods  till  he  gets  the  money. 

For  suppose  you  go  to  an  alehouse  with  that  base  money, 
and  the  landlord  gives  you  a  quart  for  four  of  those  half- 
pence, what  must  the  victualler  do?  His  brewer  will  not 
be  paid  in  that  coin;  or  if  the  brewer  should  be  such  a  fool 
the  farmers  will  not  take  it  from  him  for  their  barley, 
because  they  are  bound  by  their  leases  to  pay  their  rents 
in  good  and  lawful  money  of  England;  which  this  is  not, 
nor  of  Ireland  neither.  And  the  'squire,  their  landlord, 
will  never  be  so  bewitched  to  take  such  trash  for  his  land ; 
so  that  it  must  certainly  stop  somewhere  or  other,  and 
wherever  it  stops  it  is  the  same  thing,  and  we  are  all 
undone. 

But  your  great  comfort  is  that  as  his  majesty's  patent 
does  not  oblige  you  to  take  this  money,  so  the  laws  have 
not  given  the  crown  a  power  of  forcing  the  subject  to 
take  what  money  the  king  pleases;  for  then,  by  the  same 
reason,  we  might  be  bound  to  take  pebblestones  or  cockle- 
shells or  stamped  leather  for  current  coin  if  ever  we  should 
happen  to  live  mider  an  ill  prince. 

Therefore,  my  friends,  stand  to  it  one  and  all:  refuse 
this  filthy  trash.     These  halfpence  are  like  "the  accursed 


153  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 

thing,  which,"  as  tlie  Scripture  tells  us,  "the  children  of 
Israel  were  forbidden  to  touch."  They  will  run  about  like 
the  plague  and  destroy  who  lays  his  hand  upon  them.  I 
have  heard  scholars  talk  of  a  man  who  told  the  king  that 
he  had  invented  a  way  to  torment  people  by  putting  them 
into  a  bull  of  brass  with  fire  mider  it;  but  the  prince  put 
the  projector  first  into  his  brazen  bull  to  make  the  experi- 
ment. This  very  much  resembles  the  jiroject  of  Mr.  Wood; 
and  the  like  of  this  may  possibly  be  Mr.  Wood's  fate,  that 
the  brass  he  contrived  to  torment  this  kingdom  with  may 
prove  his  own  torment  and  his  destruction  at  last. — Ar- 
ranged from  The  Drapier's  Letters  by  Jonathan  Swift. 

FOLLY    OF    USING    FORCE     WITH    THE     COLONIES 

America,  gentlemen  say,  is  a  noble  object;  it  is  an  ob- 
ject well  worth  fighting  for.  Certainly  it  is,  if  fighting 
a  people  be  the  best  way  of  gaining  them.  Gentlemen  in 
this  respect  will  be  led  to  their  choice  of  means  by  their 
complexions  and  their  habits.  Those  who  understand  the 
military  art  will  of  course  have  some  predilection  for  it. 
Those  who  wield  the  thunder  of  the  state  may  have  more 
confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  arms.  But  I  confess,  possibly 
for  want  of  this  knowledge,  my  opinion  is  much  more  in 
favor  of  prudent  management  than  of  force, — considering 
force  not  as  an  odious,  but  a  feeble,  instrument  for  pre- 
serving a  people  so  numerous,  so  active,  so  growing,  so 
spirited  as  this,  in  a  profitable  and  subordinate  connection 
with  us. 

First,  sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force 
alone  is  but  temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but 
it  does  not  remove  the  necessity  of  subduing  again :  and 
a  nation  is  not  governed  which  is  perpetually  to  be  con- 
quered. 

My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is  not  al- 
wavs  the  effect  of  force ;  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory. 
If  you  do  not  succeed,  you  are  without  resource;  for  con- 
ciliation failing,  force  remains;  but  force  failing,  no 
further  liope  of  reconciliation  is  left.  Power  and  author- 
ity are  sometimes  bought  by  kindness,  but  they  can  never 
be  begged  as  alms  by  an  imi)overished  and  defeated  vio- 
lence. 


AKGUMENTATION  153 

A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you  impair  the  ob- 
ject by  your  very  endeavors  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you 
fought  for  is  not  the  thing  whicli  you  recover ;  but  depreci- 
ated, sunk,  wasted,  and  consumed  in  the  contest.  Nothing 
less  will  content  me  than  whole  America.  I  do  not  choose 
to  consume  its  strength  along  with  our  own;  because  in 
all  parts  it  is  British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do  not 
choose  to  be  caught  by  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  end  of  this 
exhausting  conflict;  and  still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I 
may  escape,  but  I  can  make  no  insurance  against  such  an 
event.  Let  me  add  tliat  I  do  not  choose  wholly  to  break 
the  American  spirit;  because  it  is  the  spirit  that  has  made 
the  country. 

Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in  favor  of  force 
as  an  instrument  in  the  rule  of  our  colonies.  Their  growth 
and  their  utility  has  been  owing  to  methods  altogether 
different.  Our  ancient  indulgence  has  been  said  to  be 
pursued  to  a  fault.  It  may  be  so;  but  we  know,  if  feeling 
is  evidence,  that  our  fault  was  more  tolerable  than  our 
attempt  to  mend  it,  and  our  sin  far  more  salutary  than  our 
penitence. 

These,  sir,  are  my  reasons  for  not  entertaining  that  high 
opinion  of  untried  force,  by  which  many  gentlemen,  for 
whose  sentiments  in  other  particulars  I  have  great  respect, 
seem  to  be  so  greatly  captivated. — Edmund  Burke  in 
Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America. 

EVOLUTION    OF    THE    HORSE 

Strong  evidence  that  the  horse  of  to-day  is  descended 
from  a  simpler  form  is  found  in  the  fossil  remains  of  ear- 
lier types  of  horses.  Of  course  this  geological  record  is 
not  perfect;  for  in  the  first  place,  the  animals  to  be  pre- 
served must  not  die  a  natural  death  by  disease  or  old  age, 
or  by  being  the  prey  of  other  animals,  but  must  be  de- 
stroyed by  some  accident  which  shall  lead  to  their  being 
embedded  in  the  soil.  They  must  be  either  carried  away 
by  floods,  sunk  into  bogs  or  quicksands,  or  be  enveloped 
in  the  mud  or  ashes  of  a  volcanic  eruption ;  and  when  thus 
embedded  they  must  remain  undisturbed  amid  all  the 
future  changes  of  the  earth's  surface.  But  the  chances 
against  this   are   enormous,   because  denudation   is   always 


154  EN"GLISn    COMrOSITION 

goinjij  on.  Tlic  alternations  of  marine  and  freshwater  de- 
jjosits  tell  us  ])lainly  of  repeated  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  surface;  and  our  paheontologieal  collections^  rich 
though  they  may  appear,  are  really'  but  small  and  random 
samples.  In  spite  of  these  gaps,  the  ancestral  forms  of 
the  horse  tribe  which  have  been  discovered  in  America, 
from  earlier  geological  formations  to  the  present,  show  the 
process  of  evolution. 

The  horse  family  differs  widely  from  others  in  the  struct- 
ure of  the  feet,  all  of  which  terminate  in  a  single  large 
toe  forming  the  hoof.  In  examining  the  foreleg  of  the 
horse.  Professor  Huxley  finds  that  what  is  commonly  called 
the  knee  corresponds  to  our  wrist.  The  "cannon  bone" 
answers  to  the  middle  of  the  five  bones  which  support  the 
palm  of  our  hand;  other  bones  answer  to  the  joints  of  our 
middle  finger;  and  the  hoof  is  simpl^^  a  greatly  enlarged 
and  thickened  nail.  In  place  of  our  second  and  fourth 
digits  there  are  only  two  slender  and  spliiitlike  bones, 
which  tajier  to  their  lower  end  and  bear  no  finger  joints. 
Corresjjonding  modifications  are  found  in  the  hind  leg. 
There  are  twelve  cutting  teeth  in  the  forepart  of  the  mouth. 
The  twenty-eight  grinders,  or  molars,  are  composed  of 
folds  of  unequal  hardness.  The  consequence  is  that  they 
wear  away  at  different  rates;  and  hence  the  surface  of 
each  grinder  is  always  as  uneven  as  that  of  a  good  mill- 
stone. 

According  to  Professor  Marsh  of  Yale  College,  who  has 
himself  discovered  no  less  than  thirty  species  of  fossil 
equidae,  the  oldest  representative  of  the  horse  at  present 
known  is  the  diminutive  eohippus,  from  the  lower  eocene 
formation.  Several  species  have  been  found,  all  about  the 
size  of  a  fox.  They  had  forty-four  teeth,  four  well-devel- 
o))ed  toes  and  the  rudiments  of  another  on  the  forefeet, 
and  three  toes  behind. 

In  the  next  higher  division  of  the  eocene  another  genus, 
orohippus,  made  its  appearance,  replacing  eohippus,  and 
showing  a  greater,  though  still  distant,  resemblance  to  the 
equine  type.  The  rudimentary  first  digit  of  the  forefeet 
had  disappeared.  Orohippus  was  but  little  larger  than 
eohippus,  and  in  most  other  respects  very  similar. 

Near  the  base  of  the  miocene  was  a  third  closely  allied 
genus,  mesohippus,  which  was  about  as  large  as  a  sheep, 


ARGUMENTATION 


155 


Fore-         Hind-         Fore-     r^  Upper  molar.     Lower  molar, 

foot.  foot.  arm.         *>• 


RECENT. 
Equus. 


PLIOCENE. 
Pliohippua. 


Protohippus 
(Hipparion). 


MIOCENE. 

Miohippus 
{Anchithenum). 


Mesohippus. 


EOCENE. 
Orohippus. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    HOUSE     TRIBE    (eOHIPPUS  NOT  SHOWN) 


156  EXGLTSH   COMPOSITION" 

and  one  stage  nearer  the  horse.  It  liad  only  three  toes 
and  a  rudimentary  splint  on  the  forefeet,  and  three  toes 
behind.  Other  characters  show  clearly  that  the  transition 
was   advancing. 

In  the  upper  miocene  mesohippus  was  not  found,  but  a 
fourth  form,  miohippus,  continued  the  line.  The  three 
toes  in  each  foot  were  more  nearly  of  a  size,  and  the  rudi- 
ment of  the  fifth  bone  was  retained.  The  animal  was 
larger  than  the  mesohippus. 

In  the  lower  pliocene  the  protohippus  was  yet  more 
equine,  and  some  of  its  species  equalled  the  ass  in  size. 
There  were  still  three  toes  on  each  foot,  but  only  the  middle 
one,  corresponding  to  the  single  toe  of  the  horse,  came  to 
the  ground. 

In  the  ))liocene  we  have  the  last  stage  of  the  scries  be- 
fore reaching  the  horse — the  plioliippus,  which  had  lost 
the  small  hooflets,  and  in  other  res])ects  was  very  equine. 

Finally  in  the  upper  pliocene  the  true  equus  appears 
and  completes  the  genealogy  of  the  horse,  which  in  the 
post-tertiary  roamed  over  the  whole  of  North  and  South 
America,  and  soon  after  became  extinct.  This  occurred 
long  before  the  discovery  of  the  continent  by  the  Euro- 
peans. 

Besides  the  characters  mentioned,  there  are  many  others 
in  the  skeleton,  skull,  teeth,  and  brain  of  the  forty  or  more 
intermediate  species,  which  show  that  the  transition  from 
the  eocene  eohippus  to  the  modern  equus  has  taken  place 
in  the  order  indicated.  Well  may  it  be  said  that  this  is 
demonstrative  evidence  of  the  evolution  of  the  horse. — 
Arranged  from  Darwinism  by  Alfred  Russel  Wallace, 
edition  of  1891. 

THE    ABOLITION     OF     CAPITAL     PUNISHMENT 

In  the  reign  of  George  the  Third  in  England  some  two 
hundred  felonies  were  punishable  with  death.^  The  year 
1761,  for  example,  witnessed  sixty-three  hangings  in  Lon- 
don alone.-  But  one  crime  after  another  has  been  stricken 
from  the  list,  till  in  this  country  to-day  murder  in  the  first 
degree  only  is  left;  and  for  this  several  states  no  longer 
inflict  capital  punishment.  The  question  of  the  complete 
abolition  of  the  death  penalty  is  brought  forward  by  the 
execution  of  every  notorious  murderer. 


ARGUMENTATION  157 

The  idea  that  underlay  the  older  and  more  cruel  pun- 
ishments was  that  of  vengeance:  the  criminal  had  wronged 
the  state  and  the  state  was  entitled  to  revenge.  Hence  the 
rack,  the  stake,  and  a  hundred  other  hideous  tortures.  In 
this  age  the  best  authorities  agree  that  the  aim  should  not 
be  vengeance  but  reformation.  To  this  end  prisoners  re- 
ceive the  rudiments  of  an  education,  are  instructed  in  vari- 
ous trades,  and  are  sentenced  for  indefinite  terms — to  be 
released  when  they  seem  likely  to  lead  honest  and  indus- 
trious lives.  The  issue,  then,  in  a  discussion  of  the  abo- 
lition of  capital  punishment,  is  whether  humanity  and  jus- 
tice demand  the  application  of  this  principle  of  reformation 
to  murderers  as  well  as  to  other  criminals,  and  whether 
the  proposed  abolition  will  remove  any  of  the  safeguards 
of  society. 

One  of  the  arguments  still  urged  in  behalf  of  capital 
punishment  is  that  we  should  obey  the  Old  Testament  law 
of  a  life  for  a  life."  This,  however,  has  in  it  the  notion 
of  vengeance,  which,  though  perhaps  fitted  for  a  primitive 
and  barbarous  race,  has  surely  been  outgrown  in  America. 
To  play  the  part  of  a  savage,  to  vent  spite  on  a  wretch  who 
has  violated  even  its  most  sacred  laws,  is  unworthy  of  a 
nation  that  is  great  and  humane. 

Then  too,  the  death  penalty  is  unjust.  The  man  who 
fails  in  an  attempted  murder  is  simply  imprisoned,  though 
his  intentions  may  have  been  as  evil  as  those  of  actual 
murderers.  He  is  saved  from  the  gallows  or  the  death- 
chair  by  a  sheer  accident,  which  has  no  bearing  at  all 
upon  his  moral  guilt.  He  serves  his  term  in  prison  and 
is  offered  inducements  to  reform,  while  another,  who  has 
succeeded  in  committing  murder — perhaps  also  by  a  chance 
— suffers  the  extreme  penalty.  Moreover,  no  human  tri- 
bunal can  determine  the  exact  degree  of  guilt  and  the  ap- 
propriate retribution.  Inherited  tendencies,  environment, 
a  thousand  causes  lying  outside  the  criminal's  will,  may 
have  hurried  him  to  the  terrible  deed.  No  jury  is  com- 
petent to  search  the  secrets  of  his  heart  and  pronounce  his 
doom.  In  some  instances  he  may  not  be  in  full  possession 
of  his  senses,  may  be  irresponsible.  At  Sing  Sing  a  few 
years  ago,  John  Henry  Barker  was  executed,  and  the  au- 
topsy, according  to  newspaper  report,  revealed  the  fact 
that  his  brain  was  diseased.^      The  machinery  of  law  may, 


158  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

during  a  longer  or  sliorter  ])eriod,  restrict  a  murderer's 
liberty,  for  his  own  sake  and  that  of  society;  but  when 
it  settles  his  fate  irrevocably  and  sweeps  away  every  hope 
of  reclaiming  him,  it  usurps  the  right  of  the  Omniscient. 

In  a  number  of  cases  innocent  men  have  been  hanged : 
Wiggin  in  England  in  1867;  Hayes  and  Stone  in  1873.'* 
In  after  years  evidence  came  to  ligjit  which  would  have 
acquitted  all  tliree.  But  their  ))unishiiient,  unlike  im- 
prisonment, had  ])laced  them  beyond  tlie  reach  of  jjardon 
or  rescue.  Though  guiltless  they  died  an  ignominious  and 
unjust  death,  because  a  supposedly  civilized  nation  still 
clung  to  a  relic  of  barbarism. 

But  apart  from  the  brutality  and  injustice  of  capital 
punishment,  it  has  failed  to  protect  societj'.  True,  a 
writer  in  the  English  Saturdai)  Review  urges:  "There  are 
many  reasons  for  believing  that  the  fear  of  the  death  pen- 
alty strikes  the  imagination  of  ordinary  men  and  women 
more  powerfully  tlian  au}^  other  punishment  known  to  the 
law."*  Others  believe  that  the  disgrace  itself  is  a  deter- 
rent.' Granting  that  this  argument  is  not  without  force, 
we  must  yet  remember  that  the  lessening  severity  of  punish- 
ment has  not  been  followed  by  an  increase  of  crime.  Life 
and  property  are  more  secure  in  England  to-day  than  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  Human  nature  being  wliat  it  is, 
a  criminal  will  trust  to  luck  ratlier  than  weigh  nicely  the 
relative  pains  of  hanging  and  imprisonment. 

The  fact  that  abolition  of  capital  punishment  has  not 
been  followed  by  an  increase  of  crime  is  abundantly  shown 
by  experience.  Holland  abolished  capital  punishment  in 
1870;  from  18Gl  to  1869  there  were  nineteen  murders; 
from  1871  to  187.9  but  seventeen,  in  spite  of  the  larger 
pojKilation.^  Belgium  has  had  no  executions  since  1863; 
in  the  ten  years  previous  there  were  921  murders;  in  the 
ten  years  after,  702.^  Portugal  in  1867  substituted 
for  the  death  penalty  twenty  years  of  imprisonment,  not 
solitary;  since  then  the  number  of  homicides  has  materially 
decreased."  Finland  did  not  execute  criminals  after  1824, 
and  yet  a  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  declared:  "The 
security  of  person  and  ]iro]ierty  has  not  been  in  the  least 
diminished  by  the  sus))ension  of  cajiital  jiunishment."^ 

In  our  own  countrv  Michigan  abolished  caj)ital  jiunish- 
ment  in   1817,  Wisconsin   in    18.53,  and   Iowa   in   1872.      In 


ARCJUMENTATION" 


159 


INfichigan  the  murders  h;ive  decreased,  relative  to  the  popu- 
lation, fifty-seven  per  cent.  Of  Wisconsin  Governor  Wash- 
burne  said  in  1873:  "No  state  can  show  greater  freedom 
from  homicidal  crime.  With  a  population  representing 
almost  every  nationality,  statistics  show  that  crime,  instead 
of  increasing  with  the  growth  of  the  state,  has  actually 
diminished."  Of  Iowa  Senator  Jessup  declared  in  1876: 
"Murder  in  the  first  degree  has  not  increased,  but  has  for 
four  years  decreased.  Previous  to  the  repeal  of  the  old 
law  there  was  one  murder  for  every  800,000  people.  For 
the  four  years  since  there  has  been  one  in  every  1,200,000." 
Throughout  this  country  as  a  whole,  however,  capital  pun- 
ishment has  been  retained.  That  it  has  not  made  life  safer 
is  shown  by  the  following  table  compiled  by  the  Chicago 
Tribune :'' 


Year 

Number  of 

Murders  and 

Homicides  in  the 

United  States 

Number  of 

People  for  each 

Murder  or 

Homicide 

Number  of 

Executions 

in  the 

United  States 

1881 

1882 

1,266 
1,467 
1,697 
1,465 
1.808 
1,499 
2,335 
2,184 
3,567 
4,290 
5,906 
6,791 
6.615 
9.S00 
10,500 
10,652 
9,520 
7,840 
6,225 
8,275 
7.852 
8.834 
8,976 

40,534 

35,784 

31,640 

37,478 

31.055 

38,295 

25,130 

27,460 

17,123 

14,597 

10,826 

9,599 

10,046 

6,912 

6,575 

6,658 

7,532 

9  319 

11,957 

9,219 

9,902 

8,9.55 

90 
121 

1883 

107 

1884 

123 

1885 

1886 

108 
83 

1887 

79 

1888 

87 

1889 

98 

1890 

102 

1891 

123 

1892 

107 

1893 

126 

1894 

132 

1895 

132 

1896 

122 

1897 

1898 .  . 

1899 

128 
109 
131 

1900 

117 

1901 

118 

1902 

144 

1903 

124 

Total 

129,464 

2  611 

160  EXGLISH    COMPOSITION 

When  we  see  that,  notwithstanding  numerous  executions, 
the  number  of  murders  is  steadily  swelling,  we  may  well 
come  to  the  conclusion  reached  by  an  attorney-general  of 
Massachusetts,  that  "punishment  by  hanging  does  not  pre- 
vent or  diminish  crime."^  If,  then,  capital  punishment 
renders  life  no  safer,  and  if  it  is  both  brutal  and  unjust, 
it  should  be  abolished. 

References : 

1.  B.    Paul    Neuman,    Fortnighflt/    Review,    September, 

1899. 

2.  Mark   Drayton,   Westminster  Review,  April,   1901. 

3.  James  W.  Stillman,  Green  Bag,  March,  1898. 

4.  July  22,   1899. 

5.  McClure's  Magazine,  December,  1904. 

6.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  March,  1901,  p.  .'5()(). 


THE   HONOR   SYSTEM 

A  writer  in  the  Academy  Weekly  suggests  that  we  adopt 
the  honor  system.  At  St.  Swithin's  the  teachers  retain 
control  of  studies  and  class  standing,  but  turn  over  to  an 
honor  committee,  consisting  of  two  members  from  each 
class,  all  discipline  for  conduct.  This  committee  deter- 
mines the  punishment  for  cheating  in  examinations  and 
other  misbehavior.  Every  boy  is  expected  to  report  to 
the  committee  whenever  he  notices  an  infraction  of  the 
rules;  and  upon  this  and  other  information  the  committee 
acts.  The  plan  has  worked  so  well  at  St.  Swithin's  for 
a  year  that  some  of  our  three  hundred  students  want  to 
try  it.  They  argue  that  the  sj^stem  would  secure  better 
conduct  and  improve  our  characters.  After  talking  with 
several  of  the  teacliers  and  many  of  the  boys,  I  have 
reached  the  conclusion  that  because  the  system  would  fail 
here  in  these  two  vital  points,  we  should  not  ad()))t  it. 

First,  as  to  the  effect  upon  behavior.  Relatively  few 
misdemeanors  will  be  reported  unless  we  are  practically 
unanimous  in  demanding  the  plan,  and  thus  feel  bound 
to  do  our  best  with  it.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  ma- 
jority of  our  pupils  with  whom  I  have  spoken  do  not  want 


ARGUMENTATION  161 

the  system ;  they  would  hate  to  be  tale-bearers.  Under 
such  conditions  the  sneaks  would  get  off  scot-free.  Their 
prosperous  dishonesty  would  be  a  standing  temptation  to 
many  lads  who,  though  not  actually  vicious,  are  rather 
weak-kneed.  In  support  of  this  view  I  can  point  to  Wil- 
ford  Academy,  about  the  size  of  this  institution,  which 
attempted  the  plan  and  gave  it  up.  The  teachers  found 
that,  on  account  of  laxity  in  reporting  offences,  all  except 
the  rigidly  conscientious  students  were  becoming  demoral- 
ized together. 

Defenders  of  the  system  argue  that  when  a  student  must 
report  the  delinquencies  of  a  companion  he  will  exert  all 
his  influence  to  make  that  friend  walk  a  straight  line,  and 
that  with  everybody  wanting  everybody  else  to  be  good, 
all  must  behave  well  together.  In  a  small  school  like  St. 
Swithin's,  where  the  boys  are  divided  into  families,  so  to 
speak,  living  in  a  few  houses,  in  close  contact  with  the 
masters,  these  intimate  relationships  may  produce  the  re- 
sults described.  But  on  account  of  the  very  size  of  the 
Academy^ — we  are  five  times  as  large  as  St.  Swithin's — 
many  boys  are  acquainted  but  slightly.  I,  for  example, 
should  hesitate  to  meddle  with  the  morals  of  mere  acquaint- 
ances. If  I  preached  to  them  they  would  tell  me  to  mind 
my  own  business  and  they  would  mind  theirs.  Thus  the 
more  reckless  would  be  but  little  restrained  by  the  influence 
of  their  fellows;  and  fifteen  or  twenty  of  a  "fast  set"  might 
do  what  is  almost  impossible  at  St.  Swithin's,  form  a  sort 
of  gang  by  themselves  and  more  or  less  ignore  the  wishes 
of  the  rest  of  us.  The  presence  of  such  a  gang,  unchecked 
and  unpunished,  would  decidedly  lower  the  standard  of 
conduct  in  the  whole  school. 

My  second  argument,  which  follows  almost  as  an  in- 
ference from  my  first,  is  that  the  honor  system  would  have 
a  bad  eff"ect  upon  our  characters.  Some  think,  of  course, 
that  when  every  student  is  responsible  for  his  own  con- 
duct and  the  tone  of  the  school,  he  will  be  fortified  in  his 
purpose  to  be  upright,  will  become  more  manly  than  he 
who  is  constantly  endeavoring  to  evade  a  teacher  or  dodge 
a  regulation.  But  here,  as  is  inevitable  in  so  large  a 
school,  each  pupil  is  already  thrown  much  on  his  own 
responsibility.  Those  who  are  well  disposed  are  already 
doing  their  best,  and  are  not  striving  to  evade  or  dodge. 


1G2  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

Their  characters  would  not  be  so  mucli  strengthened  by 
added  responsibility  as  weakened  by  the  presence  of  a 
crowd  which  misbehaved  with  impunity.  Moreover,  while 
so  many  of  us  are  opi)osed  to  the  system,  we  should  not 
feel  so  keenly  responsible  for  the  tone  of  the  school.  If, 
as  has  been  i)roved  above,  there  would  be  a  gencr.il  lower- 
ing of  tone,  our  characters  would,  without  question,  be 
affected  unfavorably.  In  brief,  the  honor  system  here, 
however  useful  in  a  small  school,  would  provoke  miscon- 
duct and  demoralize  character. 


38.  Unity  in  Argumentation. — In  argumentation  the 
principle  of  unity,  though  no  less  important  than  in 
other  writing,  is  harder  to  observe.  Long  and  careful 
consideration  is  often  needed  to  detonuine  Avhether  facts 
which  are  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  a  subject, 
and  which  are  also  interesting,  are  aside  from  the  exact 
point.  In  working  on  the  topic  of  Cuban  annexation 
the  student  will  discover  in  the  mass  of  information  on 
the  history  of  the  island,  resources,  national  character, 
and  form  of  government,  much  matter  which  in  a  general 
way  is  both  entertaining  and  useful ;  but  he  cannot  trust 
a  mere  off-hand  judgment  to  decide  what  has  reference 
to  our  relations  with  Cuba  and  therefore  lies  in  the  true 
path  of  the  argument.  In  studying  the  question  whether 
children  under  fourteen  should  be  allowed  to  labor  in 
factories  one  will  come  upon  reasons  which  at  first  seem 
strong,  but  which,  after  due  reflection,  have  to  be  thrown 
out  because  they  apply  to  children  under  ten  and  do  not 
prove  that  the  line  should  be  drawn  at  fourteen.  !More- 
over,  it  is  always  easy  to  go  astray  and  reach  wrong 
conclusions ;  to  infer,  for  instance,  that  because  a  law 
against  Sunday  liquor  selling  is  not  enforced,  there  must 
be  some  defect  in  the  statute,  whereas  the  shortcoming 


ARGUMENTATION^  163 

may  really  be  in  the  police  force ;  or  that  because  a  les- 
son is  difficult  the  teacher  is  dull,  whereas — 

The  first  step  toward  securing  unity  is  to  master  the 
whole  subject,  so  that  nothing  be  left  out  through  igno- 
rance. Such  mastery  is  not  possible  when  one  relies 
upon  a  single  writer  or  talks  with  but  one  person.  The 
right  method  is  to  read  all  that  is  accessible  on  both 
sides,  to  get  all  points  of  view.  If  the  theme  relate  to 
some  public  question  one  may  easily  look  it  up  in  the 
indexes  of  The  Nation^  The  Literary  Digest,  Public 
Opinion,  The  Review  of  Reviews,  and  The  World^s 
Work-  and  in  many  libraries  Poole's  Index  to  Periodical 
Literature,  Fletcher's  Index  to  General  Literature,  and 
Appleton's  Anmial  Cyclopadia.  But  whether  the  facts 
be  obtained  from  books  or  papers  or  from  personal  ac- 
quaintances who  are  authorities,  the  essential  thing  is  to 
have  them  all  at  command. 

The  second  step  is  to  analyze  them  thoroughly. 
Analysis  shows  what  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  argu- 
ment, what  is  of  secondary  importance,  to  be  used  if 
space  pennit,  and  what  is  irrelevant,  no  matter  how 
large  the  space.  This  knowledge  of  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  facts,  reached  by  analysis,  is  also  a  great  help 
in  determining  order  and  proportion ;  for  evidence  of 
little  weight  should  be  assigned  small  space  in  an  incon- 
spicuous part  of  the  theme. 

EXPOSITION    OF    THE    QUESTION 

The  beginning  of  analysis  is  generally  an  exposition 
of  the  question  ;  that  is,  an  account  of  its  origin,  a  defi- 
nition of  doubtful  words,  or  terms,  a  clearing  up  of 
possible  ambiguities,  and  a  statement   of  the  scope  of 


164  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

the  argument.  In  expoundlnfi^  the  question,  "Should 
city  governments  build  model  tenements  for  the  poor?" 
the  writer  would  explain  that  the  success  of  model  tene- 
ments in  some  foreign  cities  and  in  New  York  has  set 
people  to  asking  whether  the  municipality  itself  should 
not  erect  such  buildings;  and  that  by  "city  govern- 
ments" he  meant  American  city  governments,  for  he 
could  not  discuss  conditions  the  world  over.  He  might 
farther  limit  himself  to  cities  of  1,000,000  or  more  in- 
habitants, for  usuall}^  the  need  of  model  tenements  is  not 
serious  in  small  cities.  Indeed,  he  might  wisely  change 
the  question  and  confine  it  to  one  city,  Uke  Chicago. 
Such  limitations,  which  do  not  make  the  question  one- 
sided, and  which  are  really  necessary  if  the  argument  is 
to  avoid  vagueness,  are  often  worked  out  in  the  course 
of  analysis ;  but  they  are  not  allowable  in  debate  unless 
both  sides  are  agreed,  and  they  should  not  be  made  by 
a  student  without  permission  from  the  instructor.  In 
this  particular  question  the  writer  would  also  have  to 
define  "poor,"  and  he  might  call  a  poor  family  one 
which  earns  less  than  .$3.50  a  j^ear.  He  would  also  ex- 
plain that  a  city  government  "should"  build  tenements 
if  they  be  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  city  as  a  whole, 
and  if  private  enterprise  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  the 
undertaking.  By  "welfare"  he  would  mean  physical 
and  moral  health.  Finally,  he  might  restate  the  ques- 
tion thus:  "Are  model  tenements,  built  b}^  the  municipal 
government,  for  Chicago  families  which  earn  $350  or 
less,  necessary  for  the  physical  and  moral  health  of  the 
city.''"  Or  he  might  employ,  instead  of  the  form  of 
a  question,  that  of  a  direct  affirmation,  in  what  is 
called    a    proposition:    "Model    tenements     .     .     .     are 


ARGUMENTATION"  165 

necessary,  etc."  The  exposition  might  be  more  exhaust- 
ive, but  this  and  the  following  examples  will  indicate  the 
method : 

A    CURFEW    LAW    FOR    ALBANY 

In  1894  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  National  Home  Association 
started  a  movement  for  curfew  laws.  As  a  result  a  cur- 
few ordinance  has  been  adopted  in  many  towns  and  cities, 
among  them  Lincoln,  Omaha,  and  St.  Joseph.  These  laws 
have  differed  in  minor  details;  but  in  general  they  forbid 
any  child  under  sixteen  from  being  on  the  streets  after 
nine  at  night  unless  accompanied  by  a  parent  or  guardian, 
or  bearing  a  signed  and  dated  statement  from  such  parent 
or  guardian  that  the  child  is  on  an  emergency  errand.  Both 
sides  admit  that  in  the  case  of  children  whose  homes  are 
respectable  the  law  would  be  beneficial.  In  Albany  the  law 
would  apply  to  many  of  the  lowest  class,  for  these  chil- 
dren are  the  ones  who  spend  their  evenings  on  the  street. 
If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  law  cannot  be  enforced  in 
Albany;  or,  if  enforced,  is  disadvantageous  to  the  chil- 
dren most  affected  by  it,  we  must  conclude  that  the  city 
should  not  adopt  it. 

THE    THREE-YEAR    DEGREE 

In  arguing  the  question  whether  the  course  for  the  de- 
gree of  bachelor  of  arts  shall  be  reduced  from  four  years 
to  three,  I  do  not  follow  those  who  hold  that  college  edu- 
cation is  a  waste  of  time  and  money,  and  that  all  shortening 
is  therefore  beneficial;  but  I  assume  that  the  training  is  a 
good  thing.  Again,  I  shall  not  stand  for  three  years  as 
against  two,  but  simply  as  against  four.  The  issue,  as  I 
view  it,  is  whether  a  three-year  course  would  make  college 
graduates  better  members  of  society;  more  successful  in 
their  callings,  law,  medicine,  business ;  and  whether  it 
would  broaden  or  narrow  that  cultivation  of  the  mind 
which  is  the  aim  of  college  education. 

SPELLING   REFORM 

The  cause  of  spelling  reform  has  been  agitated  for  many 
years,  and  it  is  now  strengthened  by  the  adherence  of  the 


166  EifGLISn   COMPOSITIOX 

Philological  Association  of  England  and  the  American 
Philological  Association.  Both  organizations  favor  a  move- 
ment toward  phonetic  spelling,  that  is,  a  fixed  and  distinct 
sign  for  every  one  of  the  thirty-eight  sounds  in  the  English 
language.  Silent  letters  would  drop  out,  new  characters 
might  in  time  be  added  to  the  alphabet,  and  we  should  have 
words  like  "fonetik"  and  "tho."  Of  necessity  the  process 
would  be  long  and  would  be  attended  by  some  confusion; 
and  there  is  a  question  whether  tlie  gain  would  be  worth 
the  price.  No  one  denies  tliat  the  present  system  has  too 
many  silent  letters  and  too  many  letters  which  have  dif- 
ferent sounds  under  like  conditions — "gh"  in  "bough"  and 
"tough."  Do  these  disadvantages  overbalance  the  advan- 
tages.'' In  short,  is  tliis  system  a  positive  disadvantage, 
and  would  the  reform  be  a  positive  advantage.'^  If  to  both 
queries  the  answer  be  yes,  we  should  adopt  the  reform. 

Origin  of  the  Question. — The  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  question  may,  as  in  WootPs  Coinage,  page  150, 
and  in  A  Curfew  Law  for  Albany,  show  \<'hy  the  topic 
is  wortli  consideration.  The  examination  of  the  origin 
may  also  lay  bare  the  real  issue.  When  a  student  tries 
to  prove  that  we  need  a  large  navy  he  soon  learns  that 
our  nav\^  has  been  steadily  growing  for  over  twenty 
years,  and  that  it  is  already  large.  The  history  of  the 
navy  and  of  the  debates  over  it  makes  it  evident  that  the 
actual  question,  the  one  which  is  practically  before  Con- 
gress at  each  session,  is  whether  we  need  a  larger  navy, 
and,  if  so,  how  much  larger.  This  examination  is  there- 
fore very  useful  to  the  writer,  even  thougii  the  facts 
themselves  may  not  after  all  be  important  enough  to  lay 
before  the  reader. 

Definition  of  Terms. — In  giving  definitions  the  safe 
rule  is  to  include  all  special,  technical,  or  possibly  am- 
biguous terms.  To  take  up  every  important  word,  as 
some  students  do,  is  a  waste  of  time  and  space.     In  the 


ARGUMENTATION  1(^'<' 

question,  "Should  New  Jersey  adopt  the  Gothenburg 
system  of  hquor  selHng?"  the  only  necessary  definition 
would  be  of  the  "Gothenburg  system" — a  plan  first  tried 
in  Norway,  by  which  the  profits  of  the  traffic  go  to  pub- 
lic uses  instead  of  to  individuals ;  a  further  definition, 
"adopt :  to  select  and  take,"  is  superfluous.  In  arguing 
for  commercial  reciprocity  with  Brazil,  a  full  explana- 
tion of  "commercial  reciprocity"  is  essential ;  and  in  dis- 
cussing a  service  pension  law  one  should  explain  that  the 
"service  pension"  generally  urged  is  a  pension  to  all 
who  served  ninety  days  in  the  Civil  War. 

Definition  is  also  a  necessity  when  tenns  cover  much 
ground  or  have  several  meanings.  In  the  question,  "Are 
our  free  institutions  in  danger?"  "free  institutions"  is 
vague  and  needs  definition  somewhat  as  follows :  suff'rage 
unbought  and  unintimidated,  courts  without  bias  or 
taint  of  dishonesty,  incorruptible  legislatures,  the  rights 
of  employer  and  employee  unabridged  by  the  power 
of  organizations  of  labor  or  of  capital.  An  argument 
for  further  restriction  of  immigration  should  enumerate 
present  restrictions  and  those  which  might  be  imposed, 
such  as  a  test  of  ability  to  read  and  write.  If  the  topic 
be  a  high  tax  on  immigrants,  one  should  tell  what  would 
be  a  "high  tax" — say.  $100  a  head.  In  considering 
whether  trades  unions  promote  the  best  interests  of  work- 
ingmen,  one  should  define  "best  interests"  as  embracing 
both  material  and  moral  welfare;  that  is,  the  question 
would  be  whether  trades  unions  raise  the  rate  of  wages 
and  the  scale  of  living,  and  make  men  more  intelligent, 
industrious,  and  virtuous. 

In   most   of  the   instances   just  cited   the   dictionary 
definition  is  practically  useless.     The  dictionary  or  the 


168  ENGLISU    COMPOSITION 

cyclopaedia  is  helpful  chiefly  in  elucidating  words  which 
are  a  little  unconnnon.  In  urging  general  adoption  of 
the  metric  system,  for  exanijjle,  one  might  go  to  the 
dictionary  for  an  exact  statement  as  to  the  metric  sys- 
tem ;  in  arguing  that  the  gorge  of  Niagara  River  shows 
the  duration  of  post-glacial  time,  one  should  consult  a 
dictionary  or  some  other  authority  for  "post-glacial." 
But  in  most  cases  the  kind  of  definition  needed  is  one 
which  makes  clear  not  so  much  the  broad  meaning 
of  a  term  as  the  particular  application.  In  debating 
whether  the  victory  of  Japan  over  China  advanced  civ- 
ilization, one  would  dwell  less  on  the  ordinary  signifi- 
cance of  "civilization"  than  on  the  specific  interests  of 
civilization — commerce,  progress  in  education  and  the 
arts — which  were  affected  b}^  the  war. 

Furthermore,  the  definitions  nnist  be  fair;  for  this 
preliminary  exposition  may  well  be  common  ground  on 
which  both  sides  meet  before  going  different  ways  in  the 
argument.  As  such,  it  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from 
statements  from  which  either  will  dissent.  Sometimes  a 
definition  will  render  the  question  no  longer  debatable. 
If  the  question  were,  "Is  the  degraded  condition  of  our 
American  cities  due  to  foreign  immigration.'*"  and  "de- 
graded conditions"  were  described  as  those  which  exist 
in  the  crowded  foreign  quarters  of  our  large  cities,  the 
argument  might  as  well  end  there ;  for  the  conditions  in 
the  foreign  quarters  are  largely  the  result  of  foreign 
immigration.  Should  the  question  be,  "Is  rotation  in 
office  desirable.''"  and  the  definition  of  "rotation,"  "that 
change  which  is  needed  to  bring  fresh  vigor  and  intelli- 
gence to  the  discharge  of  public  duty,"  the  question 
would  not  be  debatable.     It  would  be  equally  one-sided 


AKGUMENTATION  109 

if  the  definition  were  "that  frequent  change  which  makes 
it  impossible  for  a  man  to  master  his  duties  and  work 
out  an  inteUigent  poHcy."  In  one  of  Fielding's  novels 
a  debate  occurs  on  the  question,  "Can  any  honor  exist 
independent  of  religion?"  Each  disputant  tries  to 
frame^the  definition  so  as  to  shut  out  the  other  side: 

Square  answered  that  it  was  impossible  to  discourse 
philosophically  concerning  words  till  their  meaning  was 
first  established;  that  there  were  scarce  any  two  words 
of  a  more  vague  and  uncertain  signification  than  the  two 
he  had  mentioned ;  for  that  there  were  almost  as  many  dif- 
ferent opinions  concerning  honor  as  concerning  religion. 
"But,"  says  he,  "if  by  honor  you  mean  the  true,  natural 
beauty  of  virtue,  I  will  maintain  it  may  exist  independent 
of  any  religion  whatever." 

Thwackum  replied,  "When  I  mention  religion,  I  mean 
the  Christian  religion;  and  not  only  the  Christian  religion, 
but  the  Protestant  religion;  and  not  only  the  Protestant 
religion,  but  the  Church  of  England.  And  when  I  men- 
tion honor,  I  mean  that  mode  of  divine  grace  which  is  not 
only  consistent  with  and  dependent  upon  that  religion, 
but  consistent  with  and  dependent  upon  no  other." — Ar- 
ranged from  Tom  Jones. 

Such  definitions,  however  clever,  are  inadmissible. 

Statement  of  the  Issue. — The  last  step  in  the  exposi- 
tion of  the  question  is  the  statement  of  the  exact  points 
to  be  proved,  the  "issue,"  as  it  is  often  called.  In  the 
discussion  of  model  tenements,  page  164,  the  points  are 
that  tenements  are  essential  to  the  physical  and  moral 
health  of  the  city,  and  that  public  rather  than  private 
capital  is  needed  to  budd  them.  In  the  argument  on 
the  curfew  law,  165,  the  issue  is  whether  the  law  can  be 
enforced  and  enforcement  will  be  advantageous.  In 
The  Three-Year  Degree,  165,  the  issue  is  clearly  put  in 
the  last  sentence;  and  in  Spelling  Reform,  165,  the  issue 


170  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

is  wlicthcr  the  present  system  is  a  disadvantage  and  the 
reform  an  advantage.  The  way  to  find  the  issue  is, 
broadly  speaking,  to  exclude  facts  which  both  sides 
either  regard  as  of  slight  moment  or  admit  without  dis- 
pute. By  this  process  the  question  may  be  narrowed 
down  to  two  or  three  main  points.  The  following  are 
additional  exarnples  of  the  method: 

PROHIBITION    IN    DELAWARE 

In  arguing  for  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquor 
in  Delaware,  I  assume  both  sides  agree  that  excessive  use 
of  liquor  is  a  great  evil,  and  that  drunkenness  should  be 
checked  as  far  as  jiossible.  The  only  dispute  then  is  as 
to  the  means.  b'our  plans  are  proposed  for  legislative 
action:  a  state  dispensary,  as  in  South  Carolina,  high  li- 
cense, local  option,  and  prohibition.  To  prove  the  value  of 
prohibition,  I  must  show  that  it  is  more  likely  to  restrain 
drunkenness  than  any  of  the  other  three  plans. 

COMPULSORY    VOTING 

No  one  denies  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  reg- 
istered voters  never  appear  at  the  polls  election  day.  It 
is  also  admitted  that  nuich  misgovernment  is  due  to  the 
apathy  of  citizens,  to  their  neglect  of  the  primaries  and 
of  the  duty  of  voting.  Some  people  have  therefore  urged 
a  law  to  compel  every  qualified  elector  to  cast  a  ballot 
unless  he  is  prevented  by  some  such  unavoidable  cause  as 
sickness.  In  discussing  this  proposal  I  shall  exclude  the 
Southern  states,  where  the  presence  of  negroes  coin]ilicates 
the  question;  and  I  shall  base  my  arguments  on  conditions 
in  the  average  Northern  state,  say  New  York.  The  value 
of  the  proposed  enactment  would  de])end  upon  two  things: 
whether  it  could  be  enforced  without  excessive  trouble  and 
expense,  and  whether,  if  enforced,  it  would  actually  im- 
prove the  quality  of  government. 

The  statement  of  the  exact  issue  should  prevent  one 
from  ininning  off  into  a  proposition  somewhat  like  that 


AKGUMENTATION  171 

with  wliich  one  starts  but  not  quite  the  same.  True,  a 
thorough  analysis  sometimes,  as  on  page  164,  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  question  as  phrased  is  not  debatable, 
and  that  it  must  be  restated  if  the  vital  point  is  to  be 
touched;  but  a  slip-shod  half  analysis  may  mislead  one 
into  a  side  proposition,  far  from  the  heart  of  the  prob- 
lem. In  the  argument  on  prohibition  in  Delaware  a 
writer  who  fails  to  analyze  the  question  and  disentangle 
the  issue  may  content  himself  with  urging  that  high 
license  is  a  compromise  with  evil  and  therefore  immoral. 
One  may  set  out  to  show  that  co-operation  is  the  best 
method  of  settling  labor  disputes,  but  may  never  get 
much  farther  than  an  argument  against  the  injustice 
of  the  present  wage-system ;  or  that  women  should  not 
vote,  and  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  they  do  not  want 
the  suffrage — all  of  them  questions  worth  arguing  but 
not  the  questions  in  hand. 

The  statement  of  the  issue  should  also  prevent  one 
from  shooting  into  the  air,  so  to  speak,  and  failing  to 
prove  any  proposition  whatever.  There  is  always  dan- 
ger of  forgetting  that  there  is  a  proposition  and  of 
indulging  in  general  remarks ;  for  example,  about  pro- 
hibition and  drunkenness,  instead  of  proving  that  in 
Delaware  prohibition  will  do  better  than  any  other  plan ; 
of  wandering  into  a  discourse  on  the  purity  of  the  bal- 
lot and  good  citizenship,  instead  of  proving  that  in 
New  York  voting  should  be  compulsory.  A  burlesque 
on  these  rambling,  pointless  themes,  which  get  nowhere, 
is  printed  in  Cardinal  Newman's  Idea  of  a  University: 

FORTES  FORTUNA  ADJUVAT 

Of  all  the  uncertain  and  capricious  powers  which  rule 
our   earthly   destiny,    fortune    is   the   chief.      Who   has    not 


172  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

lieard  of  the  poor  being  raised  up,  and  the  rich  being  laid 
low?  Alexander  the  Great  said  he  envied  Diogenes  in  his 
tub,  because  Diogenes  could  have  nothing  less.  We  need 
not  go  far  for  an  instance  of  fortune.  Who  was  so  great 
as  Nicholas,  the  Czar  of  all  the  Russias,  a  year  ago,  and 
now  he  is  "fallen,  fallen  from  his  high  estate,  without  a 
friend  to  grace  his  obsequies."  The  Turks  are  the  finest 
specimen  of  the  human  race,  yet  they  too  have  experienced 
the  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  Horace  says  that  we  should 
wrap  ourselves  in  our  virtue  when  fortune  changes.  Na- 
poleon, too,  shows  us  how  little  we  can  rely  on  fortune;  but 
his  faults,  great  as  they  were,  are  being  redeemed  by  his 
nephew,  Louis  Napoleon,  who  has  sho-wTi  himself  very  dif- 
ferent from  what  we  expected,  though  he  has  never  ex- 
plained how  he  came  to  swear  to  the  Constitution,  and 
then  mounted  the  imperial  throne. 

From  all  this  it  appears  tliat  we  should  rely  on  fortune 
only  while  it  remains— recollecting  tlie  words  of  the  thesis, 
"Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat" ;  and  that,  above  all,  we  should 
ever  cultivate  those  virtues  which  will  never  fail  us,  and 
which  are  a  sure  basis  of  respectability,  and  will  profit 
us  here  and  hereafter. 

The  writer  of  the  theme,  instead  of  studj'ing  the 
question,  getting  at  the  issue,  immediately  went  ofF 
on  the  word  fortuna  and  produced  "a  rigmarole  of 
words."  Now  "fortune,"  as  Cardinal  Newman  remarks, 
"is  'good,'  'bad,'  'capricious,'  'unexpected,'  ten  thou- 
sand things  all  at  once,  and  one  of  them  as  much  as  the 
other."  To  write  on  "Fortune"  is  like  expressing  an 
"opinion  of  things  in  general."  But  ^^Fortes  fortwna 
adjuvaf^ — Fortune  favors  the  bold — is  a  proposition- 
rather  too  vague  to  be  successfully  treated  by  an  ama- 
teur either  by  exposition  or  argumentation,  but  still  a 
proposition,  a  statement  which  sharply  limits  the  discus- 
sion to  the  connection  between  boldness  and  fortune. 
This  limitation  the  writer  entirely  overlooked,  whereas 
he  should  have  borne  it  in  mind  all  the  time. 


AKGUMENTATIOif  173 

EVIDENCE 

After  an  exposition  of  the  question — which  generally 
includes  an  account  of  the  origin,  a  definition  of  terms, 
and  a  statement  of  the  issue — comes  an  analysis  of  the 
evidence.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  decide  which 
parts  of  it  deserve  much  space,  which  little,  and  which 
none.  The  subject  is  so  vast  and  complex  that  an  ele- 
mentary treatise  can  touch  only  a  few  of  the  main  prin- 
ciples. These  will  be  discussed  under  two  heads:  testi- 
monial evidence  and  circumstantial.  This  classification 
and  the  subdivisions  under  it  are  not  scientifically  exact ; 
in  most  arguments  all  kinds  of  evidence  interlace,  are 
inextricably  bound  up  together,  and  cannot  be  pulled 
apart  and  labelled.  But  just  as  the  dissection  of  one 
fibre  of  muscle  from  another  may  help  to  an  understand- 
ing of  the  whole  muscular  structure,  so  these  rather 
artificial  distinctions  may  assist  to  a  clearer  comprehen- 
sion of  the  more  important  aspects  of  evidence. 

A  convenient  classification  of  evidence,  as  has  just 
been  said,  is  testimonial  and  circumstantial;  that  is, 
human  testimony  and  the  evidence  from  facts  or  circum- 
stances. For  example,  if  a  man  says  he  saw  another 
break  open  a  shop-till  and  steal  the  money,  the  evidence  is 
testimonial;  but  if  the  owner  merely  finds  the  till  forced 
and  rifled,  the  evidence  is  circumstantial.  Circumstantial 
evidence  is  generally  regarded  as  of  less  weight  than 
testimonial,  and,  where  circumstances  may  lead  to  more 
than  one  conclusion,  it  is  unsafe.  If  the  till  were  sim- 
ply broken  open  and  nothing  gone,  there  might  be  at 
least  three  widely  different  conclusions :  the  damage 
might  have  been  caused  by  a  thief  who  was  scared  away, 


174  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

or  by  a  clerk  who  had  lost  the  key,  or  by  an  accident. 
On  the  other  hand,  circumstantial  evidence  may  be  as 
strong  as  testimonial,  or  even  stronger.  The  till  not 
only  broken  but  empty,  for  instance,  may  be  inore  con- 
vincing than  the  testimony  ;  for  the  circumstances  may 
furnish  complete  proof,  without  possibilit}^  of  doubt  or 
falsification,  whereas  the  human  witness  may  be  mistaken 
or  may  lie. 

TESTIMONIAL   EVIDENCE 

Honesty  of  the  Witness. — The  value  of  testimony 
depends  upon  two  things :  the  honesty  and  the  compe- 
tence of  the  witness.  Most  witnesses  outside  the  crim- 
inal world  arc  not  consciously  dishonest.  They  may  be 
grossly  prejudiced  or  amazingly  stupid,  but  they  do  not 
deliberately  deceive.  A  criminal,  however,  or  a  man  of 
generally  bad  or  weak  character  is  exceedingly  untrust- 
worthy. The  common  remark  about  such  a  person  is, 
"I  should  not  believe  him  under  oath ;"  and  his  word 
is  not  taken  unless  corroborated  by  other  evidence.  If 
a  boy  be  reputed  untruthful  his  testimony  has  slight 
weight ;  and  a  girl  who  is  always  fibbing  stands  no 
higher.  Character  is  what  counts.  Thus  Lord  Erskine 
discredits  a  witness  against  one  of  his  clients  by  attack- 
ing the  man's  character: 

The  first  witness  to  support  this  prosecution  is  William 
Hay — a  bankrupt  in  fortune  he  acknowledges  himself  to 
be,  and  I  am  afraid  he  is  a  bankrupt  in  conscience.  Such 
a  scene  of  impudent,  ridiculous  inconsistency  would  have 
utterly  destroyed  his  credibility  in  the  most  trifling  civil 
suit. — Defence  of  Gordon. 

Moreover,  a  man  of  fair  character  sometimes  resorts 
to  falsehood  for  the  sake  of  gain  for  himself  or  a  rela- 


ARGUMENTATION  175 

tive  or  friend  ;  or,  ashamed  to  confess  an  error,  he  flinches 
from  the  truth.  And  so,  where  there  is  a  chance  for 
dishonesty,  one  must  consider  not  merely  character  but 
possible  inducements  to  falsify.  Not  long  ago  two  foot- 
ball players  asserted  that  an  opponent  had  lost  his  tem- 
per, had  threatened  one  of  them,  and  had  purposely 
kicked  him  in  the  head.  The  accused  boy  denied  utter- 
ing the  threat  and  declared  the  kick  unintentional. 
Somebody  lied.  Who  w^as  it?  Probably,  though  not 
surely,  the  accused.  Two  witnesses  were  against  him, 
though  they  may  have  been  habitually  untruthful  and 
he  truthful.  The  accused,  however,  had  he  been  guilty, 
would  have  wished  to  conceal  his  misconduct,  would  have 
been  prompted  by  a  strong  motive;  while  in  the  main 
conscientious,  he  may  have  yielded  under  the  stress  of 
temptation.  The  principle  by  which  the  honesty  of  a 
witness  is  scrutinized  is  illustrated  by  a  passage  in  Dan- 
iel Webster's  speech  on  the  murder  of  Captain  Joseph 
White: 

These  two  witnesses,  Mr.  Coleman  and  N.  P.  Knapp, 
differ  entirely.  There  is  no  possibility  of  reconciling  them. 
One  or  the  other  has  sworn  falsely.  If  N.  P.  Knapp  be 
believed,  Mr.  Coleman's  testimony  must  be  wholly  dis- 
regarded. It  is,  then,  a  question  of  credit,  a  question  of 
belief  between  tlie  two  witnesses.  As  you  decide  between 
these,  so  you  will  decide  on  all  this  part  of  the  case. 

Who  is  Mr.  Coleman?  He  is  an  intelligent,  accurate, 
and  cautious  witness;  a  gentleman  of  high  and  well-known 
character  and  of  unquestionable  veracity;  as  a  clergyman, 
highly  respectable;  as  a  man,  of  fair  name  and  fame.  It 
is  a  misconstruction  of  Mr.  Coleman's  motives,  a  perversion 
of  all  just  views  of  his  conduct  and  intentions,  to  repre- 
sent him  as  acting,  on  this  occasion,  in  hostility  to  anyone, 
or  as  desirous  of  injuring  or  endangering  anyone. 

The  relation  in  which  the  other  witness  stands  deserves 
your  careful  consideration.     He  is  a  member  of  the  fam- 


176  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

ily.  He  has  the  lives  of  two  brotliers  depending,  as  he 
may  think,  on  the  effect  of  his  evidence.  Compare  the  situ- 
ation of  tliese  two  witnesses.  Do  you  not  see  miglity  mo- 
tive enough  on  the  one  side  and  want  of  all  motive  on  the 
other  ? 

In  short,  in  determining  the  honesty  of  a  witness  and 
the  corresponding  value  of  his  testimony,  one  must 
reckon  into  account  character  and  motive. 

Competence  of  the  Witness. — The  competence  of  a 
witness,  his  ability  to  remember  and  describe  with  accu- 
racy, also  depends  upon  two  tilings :  general  intelligence 
and  special  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  hand.  A  dull 
man — not  necessarily  an  illiterate — is  likely  to  be  an  inac- 
curate observer  and  reporter.  He  has  but  little  idea  of 
the  hour  of  the  day,  of  the  distance  to  the  next  cross- 
road, or  of  the  number  of  people  in  the  last  wagon  that 
passed  him.  He  cannot  remember  when  or  where  he  put 
his  knife  down.  He  never  recalls  exactly  what  was  told 
him,  but  gets  everything  confused.  Such  an  untrust- 
worthy witness  is  the  stupid  Mrs.  Nicklcb}-,  as  her 
speeches  are  reported  in  Dickens's  Nichola^s  Nickleby: 

I  once  had  a  swelled  face  for  six  weeks,  my  lord,  from 
riding  in  a  hackney-coach — I  think  it  was  a  hackney-coach, 
though  I'm  not  quite  certain  whether  it  wasn't  a  chariot. 
At  all  events  I  know  it  was  a  dark  green,  with  a  very  long 
number,  beginning  with  a  nought  and  ending  with  a  nine 
— no,  beginning  with  a  nine  and  ending  with  a  nought, 
that  was  it. 

To  the  class  of  poor  witnesses,  in  which  Mrs.  Nickleby 
stands,  belong  also  children,  whose  untrained  minds, 
often  dominated  by  the  imagination,  are  notoriously  un- 
reliable ;  and  people  whose  brains  are  either  permanently 
or  temporarily  stupefied  by  drink  or  drugs,  or  affected 
by  a  physical  or  mental  shock.    The  testimony  of  a  child 


AEGUMENTATION  177 

under  seven  is  frequently  rejected  in  a  court  of  law ;  and 
the  testimony  of  a  man  who  was  under  the  influence  of 
liquor  when  the  events  which  he  relates  happened,  or  of 
a  man  who  was  lialf  stunned  or  much  excited,  is  more 
or  less  discrccUtcd.  All  this  testimony  may  be  used  for 
what  it  is  wortli  in  a  theme,  but  it  is  worth  little. 

The  valuable  witness,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  man 
who,  in  addition  to  complete  possession  of  faculties, 
general  intelligence,  and  keenness  of  observation,  has  a 
sufficient  mastery  of  the  subject  to  rank  as  an  authority. 
The  world  is  full  of  honest  and  fairly  well-informed 
people  who  pronounce  judgment  off-hand  on  the  gravest 
and  most  complicated  matters.  The  oracles  of  the  vil- 
lage grocery  and  the  barber  shop  are  proverbially  cock- 
sure as  to  labor  and  capital,  management  of  armies  and 
navies,  and  conduct  of  government  at  home  and  abroad. 
The  youngest  students  think  they  know  the  most  about 
teaching  and  discipline.  Imaginary  omniscience  is  not, 
however,  confined  to  shops  and  schools :  it  fills  our  news- 
papers, magazines,  and  books.  Our  dailies  enjoy  a 
well-earned  reputation  for  articles  written  in  pathetic 
ignorance  of  the  facts.  Even  the  London  Spectator, 
one  of  the  ablest  English  weeklies,  recently  based  an 
editorial  note  on  the  supposition  that  Ohio  is  a  Southern 
state.  Of  these  various  persons  who  offer  their  views 
loudly  and  confidently,  the  only  ones  who  deserve  con- 
sideration as  authorities  are  those  who — to  use  a  former 
phrase — have  special  knowledge,  the  experts. 

The  expert  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  unprejudiced; 
for  prejudice,  though  it  may  not  wholly  destroy  the 
value  of  testimony,  distinctly  lessens  it.  Most  men  are 
biased  in  some  direction.     However  honest,  we  insensibly 


liyS  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

favor  kindred,  friends,  clmrcli,  school,  political  party, 
or  country.  In  the  passage  from  Webster,  page  175, 
tlie  testimony  of  Knapp  is  discredited  because  "he  is  a 
member  of  the  famil}"  and  therefore  prejudiced.  The 
effect  of  religious  prejudice  in  warping  judgment  and 
rendering  testimony  untrustworthy  is  a  subject  of  fre- 
quent comment.  In  like  manner  the  student  is  partial 
to  his  own  school  or  college,  sees  the  good  side  only. 
The  Wellesley  girl  assures  you  that  there  is  no  place 
to  compare  with  Wellesley,  but  her  friends  at  Smith  or 
Vassar  are  unable  to  understand  her  preference.  The 
testimony  of  each  in  behalf  of  her  own  institution  or 
against  another  is  to  be  accepted  with  an  allowance  for 
prejudice. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  testimony  of  polit- 
ical partisans.  Republican  newspapers  put  the  best  face 
on  acts  of  Republicans  and  find  fault  with  Democrats, 
while  Democrats  return  the  compliment.  Republican 
praise  of  Republican  policy  is  less  valuable  than  Demo- 
cratic praise;  and  occasional  Republican  censure  of 
Republican  policy  is  more  significant  than  the  usual 
Democratic  censure.  Recent  discussions  furnish  many 
examples  of  j)oliti(al  j)rejudice;  but  the  two  following 
extracts  are  eiiougli  to  show  the  necessity  of  reckoning 
upon  a  wide  difference  in  the  point  of  view  of  political 
opponents.  One  of  the  passages  is  from  an  English 
partisan  of  the  American  side  in  the  Revolution,  a  Whig, 
and  the  other  from  a  Tory : 

Tlic    Americans    will    not  lie    that    will    enjoy    the 

obey    your    Parliament    and  hriglitness    of    the    sunshine 

your  laws.     Tlicir  reason  is:  must    quit    the    coolness    of 

Tliey  have  no  voice  in  your  the    sliade.       lie    who    goes 


ARGUMENTATION 


179 


Parliament.  They  have  no 
share  in  making  your  laws. 
It  is  objected  that  neither 
have  most  Englishmen.  But 
many  of  you  have  a  voice 
in  Parliament;  none  of  them 
have.  All  your  freehold 
land  is  represented;  but  not 
a  foot  of  their  land  is  rep- 
resented. At  worst,  there- 
fore, you  can  be  only  en- 
slaved partialli/j  they  would 
be  enslaved  totallij.  They 
are  governed  by  parliaments 
chosen  by  themselves  and 
by  legislatures  similar  to 
yours.  Why  will  you  dis- 
turb them  in  the  enjoyment 
of  a  blessing  so  invaluable? 
Is  it  reasonable  to  insist 
that  your  discretion  alone 
shall  be  their  law?  that 
they  shall  have  no  con- 
stitutions of  government  ex- 
cept such  as  you  shall  be 
pleased  to  give  them,  and  no 
property  except  such  as 
your  Parliament  shall  be 
pleased  to  leave  them? — 
Arranged  from  Observa- 
tions on  the  Nature  of  Civil 
Liberty,  by  Richard  Price. 


voluntarily  to  America  can- 
not complain  of  losing  what 
he  leaves  in  Europe.  He 
perhaps  had  a  right  to  vote 
for  a  knight  or  burgess;  by 
crossing  the  Atlantic  he  has 
not  nullified  his  right,  but 
he  has  made  its  exertion  no 
longer  possible.  .  .  .  The 
Americans  have  voluntarily 
resigned  the  power  of  vot- 
ing, to  live  in  distant  and 
separate  governments,  and 
what  they  have  voluntarily 
quitted  they  have  no  right 
to  claim.  It  must  always  be 
remembered  that  they  are 
represented  by  the  same 
virtual  representation  as  the 
greater  part  of  English- 
men; and  that  if  by  change 
of  place  they  have  less 
share  in  the  legislature  than 
is  proportionate  to  their 
opulence,  they  by  their  re- 
mo\al  gained  that  opu- 
lence, and  had  original- 
ly and  have  now  their  choice 
of  a  vote  at  home  or  riches 
at  a  distance. — Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson  in  Taxation  No 
Tyranny. 


The  moral  is  that  in  arguing  a  political  question  one 
should  not  treat  with  profound  respect  or  assign  large 
space  to  the  opinion  of  a  writer  or  a  politician  who  is 
an  extreme  partisan  or  violently  prejudiced,  for  his  tes- 
timony may  be  worth  hardly  a  line  in  passing.  In  gen- 
eral, non-partisan  or  independent  testimony  carries  the 
greatest  weight. 


180  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

The  prejudice  in  favor  of  one's  country,  as  in  favor 
of  one's  family,  is  almost  inborn.  So  strong  is  it  that 
a  man  can  hardly  write  or  speak  with  absolute  fairness 
about  his  own  country  because  of  his  bias  toward  it,  or 
about  a  foreign  land  because  of  his  bias  against  it.  This 
prejudice,  wliich  is  proverbial,  a  subject  of  daily  jest, 
is  displayed  in  an  exaggei'ated  and  humorous  form  in 
the  following  diatribe  against  the  French,  put  into  the 
mouth  of  an  Englishman  in  one  of  Samuel  Foote's 
comedies,  The  Englishman  in  Paris: 

The  men  are  all  puppies,  mincing  and  dancing  and  chat- 
tering and  grinning;  the  women  a  parcel  of  painted  dolls; 
their  food's  fit  for  hogs ;  and  as  for  their  language,  let 
them  learn  it  that  like,  I'll  none  on't. 

But  freedom  from  prejudice,  though  it  may  be  the 
beginning  of  wisdom,  is  not  the  end  of  it.  When  the 
subject  requires  special  or  technical  knowledge,  the  wit- 
ness must  have  enjo3'ed  unusual  opportunities  to  study 
it.  Thus  in  proof  of  his  competence  as  a  historian, 
Gibbon,  in  the  preface  to  his  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  gives  his  readers  the  following 
assurance : 

I  have  carefully  examined  all  the  original  materials  that 
could  illustrate  the  subject  which  I  had  undertaken  to 
treat.  ...  I  have  always  endeavored  to  draw  from 
the  fountain-head;  my  curiosity  as  well  as  a  sense  of  duty 
has  always  urged  me  to  study  the  originals ;  and  if  they 
have  sometimes  eluded  my  search,  I  have  carefully  marked 
the  secondary  evidence  on  whose  faith  a  passage  or  a  fact 
were  reduced  to  depend. 

In  like  manner  Ruskin  asserts  his  authority  on  art  by 
telling,  in  the  preface  to  Modem  Painters,  the  extent 
of  liis  studies: 


ARGUMENTATION"  181 

Whatever  has  been  generally  affirmed  of  the  old  schools 
of  landscape-painting  is  founded  on  familiar  acquaintance 
with  every  important  work  of  art  from  Antwerp  to  Naples. 

Furthermore  Ruskin  scorns  "the  ordinary  critic  of  the 
press"  as  "precluded  by  the  nature  of  his  occupations 
from  gaining  any  knowledge  of  art." 

The  value  of  expert  testimony  is  fully  understood  by 
Wallace,  who  in  the  argument  on  the  evolution  of 
the  horse,  page  153,  strengthens  his  own  statements  by 
adducing  the  testimony  of  two  high  authorities.  Pro- 
fessors Marsh  and  Huxley.  •  On  the  other  hand.  Sir 
Charles  Lyell,  in  arguing  against  the  existence  of  a  sea- 
serpent,  in  his  Second  Visit  to  America,  attacks  the 
testimony  of  certain  witnesses  on  the  ground  that  they 
have  neither  expert  knowledge  nor  opportunity  to  apply 
it.  "We  must,"  he  says,  "make  great  allowance  for  the 
incompetence  of  observers  wholly  ignorant  of  zoology." 
Moreover,  most  of  these  witnesses  "caught  glimpses  only 
of  the  creature  when  in  rapid  motion  and  in  its  own 
element,  four-fifths  or  more  of  the  body  being  sub- 
merged." In  a  forgery  trial  handwriting  experts  are 
usually  the  important  witnesses.  A  while  ago  a  motor- 
man  was  blamed  for  a  collision  on  the  elevated  railway 
in  New  York.  Although  a  dozen  people  may  have 
watched  his  efforts  to  control  the  car,  probably  not  one 
could  tell  whether  he  was  really  at  fault,  for  none  under- 
stood the  machinery.  The  testimony  of  a  single  elec- 
trical engineer  would  have  been  worth  more  than  that 
of  everybody  else  put  together.  Indeed,  in  every  trade, 
profession,  and  subject  of  investigation  or  speculation — 
archaeology,  philology,  literature,  history,  economics, 
philosophy,  education,  science-^there  are  recognized  ex- 


183  EXQLISn    COMPOSITION" 

perts,  whose  skill  in  cascertainin«^  and  interpreting  the 
facts  makes  their  word  authoritative,  worthy  of  large 
space  and  conspicuous  position. 

Conversely,  there  are  witnesses  whose  testimony  is 
worthless ;  and  of  this  class  one  Illustration  will  sene  for 
all.  Most  of  the  testimonials  for  patent  medicine  should 
have  no  influence  on  an  intelligent  mind.  The  pictures 
of  the  "cured"  generally  show  persons  so  dull  or  igno- 
rant that  their  opinions  on  any  topic  would  be  of  slight 
value,  and  on  medical  practice,  which  requires  extraor- 
dinary special  knowledge,  of  no  value  whatever.  In  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  these  witnesses  do  not  know  exactly 
from  what  malady  they  suff'er;  they  cannot  possibly  tell 
whether  the  three  bottles  of  Kill-or-Cure  or  something 
else  is  the  real  cause  of  recovery.  When  eminent  chem- 
ists and  physicians  declare  that  a  certain  nostrum  is  a 
mixture  of  water,  coloring  matter,  and  a  bitter  flavor, 
none  of  which  could  afl'ect  the  disease,  avc  may  well  ex- 
clude as  irrelevant  the  opposing  testimony  of  Tom,  Dick, 
and  Harry. 

In  a  court  of  law  every  witness  inidergoes  cross- 
examination,  in  the  course  of  which  his  good  faith  and 
his  competence,  his  disposition  and  ability  to  tell  the 
truth,  are  fully  exhibited ;  and  testimony  which  has  suc- 
cessfully withstood  such  cross-examination,  which  has 
not  fallen  to  pieces  under  the  severest  scrutiny,  is  obvi- 
ously worthy  of  strong  emphasis.  Documents,  news- 
papers, magazines,  and  books,  on  which  students  must 
often  rely,  though  they  can  be  subjected  to  no  such 
ordeal,  are  in  a  way  cross-examined  by  the  critics.  No 
man  can  reach  distinction  as  an  authority  without  first 
having  his  utterances  scrutinized,  controverted,  verified 


ARGUMENTATION"  183 

by  other  experts  in  the  same  field.  John  Stuart  Mill  in 
political  economy,  Tyndall  in  physics,  and  Huxley  in 
biology  all  had  a  struggle  before  they  attained  their 
reputations  and  were  commonly  accepted  as  authorities. 

Of  the  various  authorities  in  print  the  least  reliable 
are  the  newspapers,  for  many  of  their  articles  are  thrown 
together  in  hot  haste,  are  subjected  to  but  little  scrutiny 
and  verification,  and  are  so  lightly  regarded  that  mis- 
takes in  them  often  go  uncontradicted.  Next  come 
magazines,  which  are  prepared  more  slowly  and  care- 
fully. Most  trustworthy  of  all  are  books,  for  they  are 
written  with  still  more  deliberation,  and  errors  are  cor- 
rected in  successive  editions.  When  a  book  has  become 
an  established  authority,  like  the  Encyclopcedia  Britarir- 
nica,  which  has  been  edited  with  much  accuracy  and  has 
undergone  many  tests,  its  statements  carry  great  weight. 

One  of  the  most  important  lessons  for  the  student 
from  this  discussion  of  testimony  is  that  there  are  few 
or  no  subjects  upon  which  he  is  an  authority,  upon 
which  his  naked  word  is  conclusive.  The  commonest 
fault  of  themes  written  in  school  and  college  is  assertion, 
affirmation  unsupported  by  reasoning  or  evidence.  The 
boy  who  says  baldly  that  you  should  vote  the  Demo- 
cratic ticket  because  the  Democrats  are  the  most  patri- 
otic, and  his  young  opponent  who  solemnly  assures  you 
that  the  Republicans  are  the  most  patriotic,  indulge 
equally  in  assertion ;  the  girl  who  rests  her  case  for 
woman  suffrage  on  her  assertion  that  if  women  vote, 
their  condition  in  the  community  will  improve,  is  also 
guilty.  To  multiply  examples  when  every  class  in  school 
and  college  furnishes  so  many  seems  almost  a  waste  of 
space,  but  the  following  are  typical: 


184  ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOX 

The  Board  of  Aldermen  is  dcl)atin<^  wliethcr  to  sprinkle 
the  streets  with  oil  in  order  to  lay  the  dust.  Alderman 
Rohhiiis  argued  for  oil.  But  I  think  water  is  better,  and 
we  should  therefore  use  it.  Alderman  Robbins  must  be 
working  for  the  oil   trust. 

The  Federal  Government  should  construct  irrigation 
works  because  the  arid  lands,  when  supplied  with  water, 
are  the  most  fertile  in  the  world.  They  contain  an  un- 
usual proportion  of  those  chemicals  which  furnish  plant 
food. 

These  several  assertions  may  be  susceptible  of  })roof, 
but  they  are  not  self-evident.  In  the  first  case  the  writer 
should  show  by  a  course  of  reasoning  that  water  is  bet- 
ter than  oil,  and  he  should  })roduce  the  evidence  that 
Alderman  Robbins  is  prejudiced  by  a  fee  from  the  oil 
trust.  In  the  second,  the  writer  should  adduce  the  testi- 
mony of  a  chemist  or  expert  in  agriculture,  Avho  is 
reputed  to  know  something  about  the  relative  fertility 
of  soils.  A  safe  rule  is  to  give  an  exact  reference  to 
authority — volume  and  page,  as  in  the  foot-notes  of 
The  Abolition  of  Capital  Punishment,  page  160 — for 
every  statement  which  is  not  conmion  knowledge  or 
which  cannot  be  accepted  on  the  authority  of  the  writer. 
The  assertion  itself,  however  emphatic,  is  not  a  demon- 
stration ;  it  proves  nothing. 

Summary  of  Testimonial  Evidence. — To  sum  up — 
the  decision  whether  a  given  piece  of  testimony  deserves 
a  place  in  the  argument  or  should  be  discarded  as  worth- 
less, whether  it  should  be  accorded  large  and  prominent 
space  or  put  briefly  and  inconspicuously,  turns  upon 
two  things :  the  honesty  and  tlie  competence  of  the  wit- 
ness. Usually  a  witness  may  be  regarded  as  honest 
unless  he  has  a  bad  character  or  is  subject  to  some  such 


ARGUMENTATION  185 

temptation  as  desire  of  gain  for  himself  or  for  kin  or 
friends.  Competence  depends  upon  general  intelligence 
and  special  knowledge  of  the  topic.  The  expert  must 
be  free  from  prejudice  and  must  have  enjoyed  un- 
usual opportunities  to  master  the  subject.  Since  young 
writers  can  seldom  pose  as  experts,  they  must  avoid  as- 
sertion and  fortify  their  arguments  with  the  testimony 
of  authorities. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL   EVIDENCE 

Circumstantial  evidence,  which  we  must  next  consider, 
Is  convincing  only  when  it  points  inevitably  to  one  con- 
clusion. In  the  example  on  page  173  a  broken  till  is 
not  so  convincing  as  a  till  broken  and  rifled;  for  the 
first  piece  of  evidence  may  lead  to  several  widely  vary- 
ing conclusions,  while  the  rifled  till  is  almost  certainly 
the  work  of  a  thief.  Or,  to  take  another  example,  a 
single  victory  in  basket-ball  is  not  always  proof  of  the 
superiority  of  the  winning  team,  for  the  result  may  have 
been  due  in  part  to  mere  accident;  but  a  long  series  of 
victories  for  one  team  would  be  prett}^  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  superiority.  In  discussing  this  circumstantial 
evidence  we  take  up. 

First,  inferences  that  are  absolutely  incorrect,  and 
that,  according  to  the  principle  of  unity,  are  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  argument. 

Secondly,  inferences  that,  though  doubtful,  may  pos- 
sibly be  sound. 

Thirdly,  inferences  that  are  sound  and  certainly  be- 
long in  the  argument. 

Incorrect  Inferences. — An  inference  of  the  first  class 
is  called  a  fallacy,  a  piece  of  false  reasoning.     The  most 


186  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

palpable  fallacies  are  those  which  have  to  do  with  mere 
words.  Here  the  trouble  usually  arises  from  confusion 
over  definitions,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

The  question  is  wliether  we  shall  support  the  protective 
tariff,  commonly  known  as  the  ])olicy  of  protection,  main- 
tained by  the  Republican  party.  A  very  brief  examination 
of  the  facts  will  show  that  protection  is  desirable.  If  a 
weak  man  has  a  piece  of  property  which  someone  stronger 
is  trying  to  steal,  the  weaker  is  certainly  entitled  to  pro- 
tection. It  is  therefore  evident  that  generous  and  honest 
men  should  be  in  favor  of  protection. 

Some  timid  souls  jirofess  to  be  much  disturbed  by  the 
prospect  of  free  trade;  and  yet  free  trade  is  the  only  pos- 
sible policy  for  a  free  republic.  According  to  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  we  are  a  "free  and  independent" 
people.  If  we  have  not  freedom  to  trade  where  we  please 
and  on  what  terms  we  please,  we  are  deprived  of  one  of 
the  great  boons  of  liberty.  Free  trade  is  therefore  a  ne- 
cessity for  a  free  peojjle. 

In  the  first  instance  the  writer  assumes  that  protec- 
tion, meaning  the  j)rotective  tariff,  is  exactly  tlie  same 
thing  as  protection  of  the  weak  against  the  oppression 
and  robbery  of  the  strong.  He  might  just  as  well  argue 
on  the  supposition  that  protection  against  cold,  say 
warm  clothing,  is  the  same  thing  as  the  protective  tariff. 
In  the  second  quotation  the  writer  seems  to  think  that 
when  the  colonies  declared  themselves  "free  and  inde- 
pendent states,"  "absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown,"  they  renounced  the  right  to  impose 
tariff  regulations  on  themselves ;  that  the  freedom  of  our 
government  from  the  control  of  an  external  power  is 
exactly  the  .same  thing  as.the  freedom  of  our  citizens  to 
import  goods  without  paying  duty  to'thcir  own  govern- 


ARGUMENTATION  187 

merit.  In  like  fashion  a  person  who  argued  that,  co- 
education is  desirable  because  brothers  and  sisters  should 
be  brought  up  together  in  the  family,  and  a  school  is 
simply  a  large  family,  used  tlie  word  family  first  in  a 
literal  and  then  in  a  figurative  sense.  In  fine,  he  as  well 
as  the  writers  on  protection  and  free  trade,  hopelessly 
confused  his  definitions. 

Still  another  complete  fallacy  is  the  argument  from 
invented  example,  the  example  not  drawn  from  real  life 
but  contrived  to  fit  the  case.  The  invented  example, 
like  ^sop's  Fables,  may  explain  or  illustrate  a  point 
but  cannot  prove  it.  A  boy,  to  prove  that  Princeton 
is  a  better  college  than  Harvard,  makes  up  a  little  story 
of  twin  brothers,  one  of  whom  goes  to  Harv^ard  and 
becomes  dissipated,  wliile  the  other  acquires  all  virtues 
at  Princeton.  Of  course  a  Harvard  enthusiast  might 
just  as  easily  write  a  tale  which  should  turn  out  the 
other  way.  The  weakness  of  the  invented  example  is 
understood  by  Jane  Austen,  who  in  her  novel  Persuasion 
represents  two  of  her  characters  arguing  the  question 
whether  the  affection  of  men  or  women  is  the  more  con- 
stant. Captain  Harville  says  that  novels  and  poems  "all 
talk  of  woman's  fickleness ;"  but  Anne  Elliot  retorts : 

No  reference  to  examples  in  books.  Men  have  had 
every  advantage  of  us  in  telling  their  own  story.  Edu- 
cation has  been  theirs  in  so  much  higher  a  degree;  the  pen 
has  been  in  their  hands.  I  will  not  allow  books  to  prove 
anything. 

The  instances  just  given,  being  themselves  invented  ex- 
amples, prove  nothing;  they  merely  serve  the  purpose 
of  exposition.  The  young  w^riter,  however,  easily  for- 
gets that  the  interesting  illustration,  though  it  may  ren- 


188  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

der  his  meaning  clearer,  may  not  in  tlic  least  persuade 
his  reader. 

Closely  related  to  the  invented  example  is  the  analogy 
which  does  not  apply — often  a  figure  of  speech,  a  simile 
or  a  metaphor.  There  may  he  a  fanciful  or  perhaps 
superficial  resemblance,  but  nothing  whatever  upon  which 
to  found  a  logical  inference.  To  say,  with  certain  po- 
litical prophets,  that,  as  it  seems  darkest  just  before 
dawn,  so  the  })art3'  whose  pros])ects  are  blackest  is  soon 
to  triumph,  is  to  draw  an  ini})ossible  analogy,  to  talk 
nonsense.  To  say  that  because  fire  purges  the  dross 
from  a  metallic  ore,  war  purifies  and  ennobles  a  nation, 
or  that  because  exercise  is  needed  to  maintain  bodily 
vigor,  war  is  needed  to  maintain  national  vigor,  is  to  be 
equally  silly.  Still  another  fallacious  analogy  is  exposed 
in  the  following  passage: 

In  considering  the  relation  of  college  life  to  school  life, 
many  pc()})l(;  are  confused  by  a  misleading  metaphor — that 
of  building.  They  say  to  themselves:  on  weak  founda- 
tions no  strong  su])erstructure  can  be  built;  schools  lay  the 
foundations  on  which  the  university  must  build;  therefore, 
if  preparatory  schools  fail  to  do  good  work,  no  proper 
university  work  can  subsequently  be  done.  The  analogy 
seems  perfect,  but  has  this  fatal  defect:  education  is  a 
vital  process,  not  a  mechanical  one.  Let  us,  therefore,  use 
an  illustration  drawn  from  a  vital  function,  that  of  nu- 
trition. A  child  has  had  poor  milk  as  an  infant,  and  is 
not  well  developed ;  therefore,  when  its  teeth  are  cut,  and 
it  is  ready  for  bread,  meat,  and  oatmeal,  you  are  to  hold 
back  this  substantial  diet,  and  give  it  the  sweetened  milk 
and  water  and  Mellin's  Food,  which  would  have  suited 
it  when  a  baby.  The  mental  food  of  a  boy  has  not  been 
as  nourishing  and  abundant  as  it  should  have  been  at 
school ;  therefore  when  he  goes  to  college  or  university  his 
diet  must  be  tliat  which  he  should  have  had  at  school,  but 
missed.      Education   involves  growth  or   development   from 


ARGUMENTATION"  189 

within  in  every  part ;  and  metaphors  drawn  from  the  proc- 
ess of  laying  one  stone  ui^on  another  are  not  useful  in 
educational  discussions. — Charles  William  Eliot  in  Lib- 
erty in  Education. 

Stijl  a  fourth  fallacy  of  this  first  class  springs  from 
the  delusion  tliat  one  event  has  caused  another  when 
there  cannot  be  the  remotest  relation  between  them.  This 
fallacy  appears  in  its  crudest  form  in  our  common  su- 
perstitions :  Smith  is  persuaded  that  because  he  walked 
under  a  ladder  or  saw  the  moon  over  his  left  shoulder 
he  will  meet  with  ill  luck ;  that  walking  under  a  ladder 
portends  misfortune,  just  as  gathering  clouds  are  a  sign 
of  rain.  The  clouds  can  and  do  bring  rain ;  there  is  an 
obvious  relation  of  cause  and  effect ;  but  neither  walking 
under  a  ladder  nor  seeing  the  moon  over  the  left  shoul- 
der can  have  the  slightest  connection  with  luck,  good  or 
bad.  In  Mark  Twain's  Hucklchcrry  Finn  Huck  himself 
and  "jNIiss  Watson's  big  nigger  Jim"  both  fall  into  tliis 
false  reasoning.     In  one  place  Huck  says : 

Pretty  soon  a  spider  went  crawling  up  my  shoulder,  and 
I  flipped  it  off  and  it  lit  in  the  candle ;  and  before  I  could 
budge  it  was  all  shrivelled  up.  I  didn't  need  anybody  to 
tell  me  that  that  was  an  awful  bad  sign  and  would  fetch 
me  some  bad  luck,  so  I  was  scared  and  most  shook  the 
clothes  off  of  me. 

Later  in  the  story  we  learn : 

Jim  said  you  mustn't  count  the  things  you  are  going  to 
cook  for  dinner,  because  that  would  bring  bad  luck.  The 
same  if  you  shook  the  table-cloth  after  sun-down.  And 
he  said  if  a  man  owned  a  beehive  and  that  man  died,  the 
bees  must  be  told  about  it  before  sun-up  next  morning, 
or  else  the  bees  would  all  weaken  down  and  quit  work  rnd 
die. 


190  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

And  3'et  Jim  is  the  person  who  declares,  "I  rcck'n  I 
knows  ncnsc  when  I  sees  it." 

Another  example  of  this  false  reasoning  has  already 
been  refeiTed  to  on  page  182.  A  man  takes  a  bottle  of 
Kill-or-Cure,  consisting  of  water  and  a  little  coloring 
matter,  and  in  time  recovers  from  rheumatism.  He  ac- 
cepts his  recovery  as  proof  of  the  efficacy  of  the  nostrum, 
which  in  reality  is  good  for  nothing.  He  would  have 
got  well  quite  as  quickly  if  he  had  repeated  the  jingle, 

One-ery,   two-ery,    ickcry,    Ann, 
Fillicy,  fallacy,  Nicholas,   John. 

The  person  who  pins  fajth  to  Kill-or-Cure  imagines  that 
because  recovery  followed  the  taking  of  the  nostrum, 
the  nostrum  must  have  done  the  blessed  work  ;  that  is, 
he  assumes  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  when  the  rela- 
tion is  only  one  of  sequence  in  time.  The  same  man 
might  cat  an  egg,  suffer  from  indigestion,  and  conclude, 
"I  nmst  stop  eating  eggs,  for  they  give  me  indigestion" ; 
whereas  his  indigestion  might  actually  be  brought  on  by 
too  nuich  smokin-g,  and,  unless  he  stopped  this,  he  would 
have  been  troubled  just  as  much  whether  he  ate  eggs  or 
bread  or  potatoes. 

This  particular  fallacy  of  mistaking  sequence  in  time 
for  cause  and  effect  is  a  high  favorite  with  the  political 
stump-speaker.  "Since  the  Democrats  (or  the  Repub- 
licans, as  the  case  may  be)  have  been  in  power,"  he  cries, 
"you  have  had  the  largest  crops  in  your  history.  Vote 
to  continue  us  in  office  and  thus  secure  a  continuance  of 
prosperity."  Of  course  neither  the  Democrats  nor  the 
Republicans  control  the  rain,  the  soil,  and  the  crops, 
and  a  change  of  party  will  have  no  more  effect  on  the 
growth  of  wheat  or  cotton  than  on  the  How  of  the  tide. 


ARGUMENTATION  191 

This  method  of  reasoning — if  reasoning  it  may  be  called 
— that  when  one  event  follows  another  the  first  is  cause, 
the  second  effect,  has  received  a  special  name,  post  hoc 
ergo  propter  Jioc,  "after  this  therefore  because  of  this." 
It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  fallacies,  sure  to  entrap 
anyone  who  is  content  with  mere  supei*ficial  appearances 
and  who  does  not  stop  to  trace  results  to  their  sources. 

Here  then  are  four  fonns  of  fallacy :  the  confusion 
of  definitions,  the  invented  example,  the  false  analogy, 
and  the  assumption  of  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  when 
no  such  relation  is  possible.  All  of  them — unless  we  ex- 
cept the  invented  example  used  merely  for  exposition — 
should,  on  the  principle  of  unity,  be  thrown  out  of  the 
argument. 

Doubtful  Inferences. — Many  inferences  belong  to  the 
second  class,  the  doubtful.  All  inferences  from  conflict- 
ing evidence  are  in  this  class.  To  consider  again  the 
case  of  the  rifled  till — if  part  of  the  money  were  taken 
and  part  left,  the  evidence  would  be  conflicting,  for  a 
thief  would  probably  steal  everything  and  an  honest  man 
would  not  steal  anything.  A  similar  example  is  found 
in  The  Boscomhe  Valley  Mystery  by  Sir  Arthur  Conan 
Doyle.  In  this  tale  a  man  is  murdered.  Certain  evi- 
dence throws  suspicion  on  his  son.  The  son's  right  hand 
and  sleeve  are  stained  with  fresh  blood. 

The  head  of  the  dead  body  h<ad  been  beaten  in  by  re- 
peated blows  of  some  heavy  and  blunt  weapon.  The  in- 
juries were  such  as  might  very  well  have  been  inflicted 
by  the  butt-end  of  his  son's  gun,  which  was  found  lying 
on  the  grass  M'ithin  a  few  paces  of  the  body. 

On  the  other  hand,  Sherlock  Holmes  discovers  a  stone 
which  he  thinks  is  the  weapon,  because,  as  he  explains, 


192  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

The  grass  was  growing  under  it.  It  had  only  lain  there 
a  few  days.  Tliere  was  no  sign  of  a  place  whence  it  had 
been  taken.  It  corresponds  with  the  injuries.  There  is 
no  sign  of  any  other  weapon. 

Sherlock  Holmes  comes  vipon  further  evidence  that  leads 
him  to  describe  the  nuirderer  in  the  following  terms, 
none  of  which  apply  to  the  son : 

He  is  a  tall  man,  left-handed,  limps  with  the  right  leg, 
wears  thick-soled  shooting-boots  and  a  gray  cloak,  smokes 
Indian  cigars,  uses  a  cigar-holder,  and  carries  a  blunt  pen: 
knife  in  his  pocket. 

Thus  each  set  of  facts  carries  the  observer  to  a  different 
conclusion. 

In  arguing  most  political  problems  one  must  sift  and 
weigh  conflicting  evidence.  People  who  believe  in  ad- 
mitting the  Chinese  to  tills  country  point  to  communities 
where  Chinese  are  law-abiding,  industrious,  and  on  the 
whole  desirable,  while  advocates  of  exclusion  point  to 
other  communities  where  Chinese  are  addicted  to  opium- 
smoking,  gambling,  and  other  vices  which  make  them  a 
demoralizing  element.  From  this  conflicting  evidence  no 
certain  inference  can  be  drawn.  In  arguing  on  prohibi- 
tion one  can  pick  out  villages  where  the  plan  has  suc- 
ceeded and  villages  where  it  has  failed.  The  inference, 
then,  from  this  conflicting  evidence  is  doubtful,  and 
cither  side,  to  be  firmly  maintained,  needs  additional 
support. 

Furthermore,  much  evidence,  though  not  conflicting, 
is  so  ambiguous  that  the  inference  from  it  is  doubtful. 
A  doctor  examining  a  patient  suffering  from  headache, 
nausea,  and  more  or  less  fever,  cannot  at  first  tell  Avhat 
the  disease  is,  because  these  early  symptoms,  while  they 


ARGUMENTATION  193 

may  not  conflict,  are  ambiguous ;  they  may  indicate  any 
one  of  half  a  dozen  maladies — typhoid  fever,  measles, 
or  perhaps  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs.  In  a 
few  days,  when  the  symptoms  are  more  distinctive,  the 
doctor  can  make  a  more  certain  inference,  a  more  accu- 
rate diagnosis. 

An  example  of  another  kind  is  a  passage  in  William 
Godwin's  novel  Caleb  Williams.  The  hero,  Williams,  is 
falsely  accused  by  his  enemy,  a  Mr.  Falkland,  of  theft. 
Williams's  trunks  are  searched,  and  in  one  are  found  a 
watch  and  several  jewels  belonging  to  Mr.  Falkland. 
Williams,  however,  asserts  that  this  evidence,  though  at 
first  sight  conclusive,  is  really  ambiguous  and  is  a  sign 
of  Mr.  Falkland's  guilt  rather  than  his : 

The  question  of  how  these  articles  of  Mr.  Falkland's 
property  came  to  be  found  in  my  possession  I  am  wholly 
unable  to  answer.  Their  being  found  there  was  at  least 
as  unexpected  to  me  as  to  any  one  of  the  persons  now 
present.  I  only  know  that  I  have  the  most  perfect  as- 
surance of  Mr.  Falkland's  being  conscious  of  my  inno- 
cence ;  I  therefore  firmly  and  from  my  soul  believe  that 
their  being  there  is  of  Mr.  Falkland's  contrivance. 

By  way  of  further  illustration — one  of  the  arguments 
for  abolishing  capital  punishment,  page  156,  is  that  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  which  have  tried  the 
experiment,  the  number  of  murders  in  proportion  to 
the  population  has  decreased.  This  fact  is  satisfactory 
proof  that  abolition  has  at  any  rate  not  made  life  less 
safe  in  those  states,  but  not  that  abolition  has  actually 
been  the  cause  of  fewer  murders.  On  this  latter  point 
the  diminution  of  murders  is  ambiguous  evidence,  for 
the  change  may  have  been  due  either  to  the  lightening 
of  the  penalty  or  to  the  improvement  of  the  police-force 


194 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


and  the  morals  of  the  wliolc  coiniuunit}-.  If  the  diminu- 
tion can  be  shown  really  to  have  resulted  from  the  abo- 
lition and  not  from  other  causes,  the  argument  is  entitled 
to  more  weight  than  if  this  relation  cannot  be  estab- 
lished, if  the  relation  be  not  surely  that  of  cause  and 
effect,  but  perhaps  that  of  mere  sequence  in  time.  Here 
are  two  more  arguments  to  which  a  similar  test  must  be 
applied : 


The  Democrats  argue 
that  the  protective  tariff  is 
a  robbery  of  the  many  for 
the  enrichment  of  the  few. 
Yet  in  this  last  forty  years, 
under  a  protective  tariff, 
this  country  has  enjoyed 
unexampled  prosperity.  The 
growth  in  manufactures,  in 
farming  products,  and  in 
the  output  from  our  mines 
is  measured  by  billions  of 
dollars.  No  one  has  been 
robbed;  every  member  of 
the  community  has  ben- 
efited. The  cajDitalist,  the 
small  shop-keeper,  and  the 
wage-earner  have  all  shared 
equally  in  this  wealth.  The 
protective  tariff,  then,  has 
been  the  greatest  blessing 
the  United  States  has  ever 
known. 


The  Republicans  pretend 
that  the  tariff  is  a  benefit 
to  the  farmer,  the  manu- 
facturer, and  the  working- 
man.  Yet  look  at  the  case 
of  Kngland.  For  years 
Great  Britain  has  enjoyed 
almost  absolute  free  trade; 
and  in  that  period  her 
prosperity  has  been  unex- 
anqiled.  She  buys  in  the 
cheapest  market  and  sells 
in  the  dearest.  Her  trade 
extends  to  the  remotest  cor- 
ners of  the  earth;  her  sails 
whiten  every  sea.  She  has 
never  grown  so  rapidly  in 
power  and  wealth  as  in  the 
years  of  free  trade.  ^^'olIld 
that  tlie  United'States  might 
follow  her  example. 


These  two  inferences,  one  that  protection  is  the 
sounder  economic  policy,  the  other  that  free  trade  is, 
cannot  both  be  right.  One  writer  assumes  that  pros- 
perity is  caused  by  })rotcction  ;  the  other,  by  free  trade. 
In  each  instance  other  causes  may  have  been  at  work — 


ARGUMENTATION"  195 

the  spread  of  education,  the  invention  of  hxbor-saving 
machinery,  the  apphcation  of  steam  and  electricity 
to  manufacturing  and  transportation.  Possibly  these 
things  have  had  as  much  to  do  with  the  unexampled 
prosperity  as  either  protection  or  free  trade;  possibly 
more  than  either.  The  relation  between  protection  and 
prosperity,  and  free  trade  and  prosperity  may,  after  all, 
be  one  of  sequence  in  time  rather  than  of  cause  and 
effect.  At  any  rate  the  evidence  in  each  case  is  ambigu- 
ous;  each  inference  is  doubtful,  and,  unless  fortified  by 
other  evidence,  of  slight  value. 

Another  type  of  evidence  that  is  often  ambiguous  is 
the  example — not  invented  but  real.  If  one  argue  from 
the  example  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  that 
capital  punishment  should  be  abolished  in  New  Jersey, 
one  nmst  prove  not  merely  that  the  abolition  of  the 
death  penalty  has  lessened  the  number  of  murders,  but 
that  conditions  in  New  Jersey  are  so  nearly  the  same  as 
in  jMichigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  that  abolition  will 
have  the  same  effect  there;  in  short,  that  the  example 
really  applies.  In  his  Speech  on  Conciliation  Burke  cites 
the  examples  of  Ireland,  Wales,  Chester,  and  Durham, 
in  which  the  English  had  tried  conciliation.  He  then 
proceeds  to  show  that  these  examples  are  applicable  to 
America,  for  without  this  proof  the  evidence  would  be 
inconclusive,  ambiguous : 

Now  if  the  force  of  these  examples  in  the  acts  of  Par- 
liament avail  anything^  what  can  be  said  against  applying 
them  with  regard  to  America.''  Are  not  the  peojile  of 
America  as  much  Englishmen  as  the  Welsh?  The  pre- 
amble of  the  act  of  Henry  VIII.  says  the  Welsh  speak  a 
language  no  way  resembhng  that  of  his  Majesty's  English 
subjects.     Are    the   Americans    not   as   numerous.^      If    we 


196  ENGLISH    CO^IPOSITION 

may  trust  the  learned  and  accurate  Judge  Barrington's 
account  of  Nortli  Wales,  and  take  that  as  a  standard  to 
measure  the  rest,  there  is  no  comparison.  The  people 
cannot  amount  to  above  200,000,  not  a  tenth  part  of  the 
number  in  the  colonies.  Is  America  in  rebellion  ?  Wales 
was  hardly  ever  free  from  it.  Have  you  attempted  to 
govern  America  by  penal  statutes?  You  made  fifteen  for 
Wales.  But  your  legislative  authority  is  j)erfect  with  re- 
gard to  America.  Was  it  less  perfect  in  Wales,  Chester, 
and  Durliam.^  But  America  is  virtually  represented. 
What !  does  the  electric  force  of  virtual  representation 
more  easily  pass  over  the  Atlantic  than  pervade  Wales, 
which  lies  in  your  neighborhood  ?  or  than  Chester  and  Dur- 
ham, surrounded  by  abundance  of  representation  that  is 
actual  and  palpable.^  But,  sir,  your  ancestors  thought  this 
sort  of  virtual  representation,  however  ample,  to  be  totally 
insufficient  for  the  freedom  of  the  inhabitants  of  territories 
that  are  so  near  and  comparatively  so  inconsiderable.  How 
then  can  I  think  it  sufficient  for  those  which  are  infinitely 
greater  and  infinitely  more  remote.'* 

The  arguments  for  protection  and  for  free  trade, 
page  194,  may  be  regarded  as  arguments  from  example. 
As  such  they  are  ambiguous,  for  they  fail  to  show  that 
conditions  under  which  free  trade  is  said  to  benefit  Eng- 
land exist  in  America,  or  vice  versa.  That  proof  may 
be  obtainable,  but  it  is  not  offered  here;  and  without  it 
the  chain  of  reasoning  is  incomplete,  the  inference  doubt- 
ful. "^I'iie  two  countries  are  alike  in  many  respects,  but 
unless  tlie  particular  conditions  affected  by  free  trade 
or  protection  are  similar,  the  argument  breaks  down. 
These  general  or  superficial  resemblances  often  deceive 
the  careless  thinker,  who  forgets  that  general  resemblance 
between  two  cases  has  no  significance  unless  there  be  like- 
ness in  the  one  or  two  essential  points. 

Closely  akin  to  the  argument  from  example  is  the 
argument  by  generalization,  by  judging   from  one  or 


ARCTUME]SrTATION"  197 

more  individuals  or  instances  the  characteristics  of  the 
whole  class.  From  the  layer  of  large  apples  on  the  top 
of  a  barrel  one  may,  perhaps,  infer  that  all  the  rest  are 
large.  If  the  top  apples  are  a  fair  sample  of  the  bar- 
rel, the  generalization  is  sound,  but  if  they  are  larger 
than  the  others  the  generalization  is  misleading.  The 
danger  in  generalization  is  that  the  individuals  are  not 
fair  specimens,  are  exceptions.  The  way  to  avoid  this 
danger  is  to  base  the  generalization  on  as  many  indi- 
viduals or  instances  as  possible ;  to  see  the  apples  on  the 
inside  of  the  barrel  as  well  as  on  the  top ;  to  drive  a 
horse  not  once  but  half  a  dozen  times  before  deciding 
to  buy  him ;  and,  as  first  appearances,  may  deceive,  to 
observe  a  man  under  a  variety  of  circumstances  before 
passing  judgment  upon  his  character. 

The  prejudiced  Englishman  who  is  quoted  on  page 
180  may  have  generalized  hastily  and  imputed  to  all 
Frenchmen  the  qualities  which  he  had  noted  in  one  or 
two.  He  is  like  the  Psalmist,  who  confesses,  "I  said  in 
my  haste,  'All  men  are  liars.'  "  Mrs.  Tulliver,  in  George 
Eliot's  Mill  on  the  Floss,  falls  into  this  eiTor  when  she 
says : 

Them  fine-talking  men  from  the  big  towns  mostly  wear 
the  false  shirt-fronts ;  they  wear  a  frill  till  it's  all  a  mess, 
and  then  hide  it  with  a  bib;  I  know  Riley  does. 

Mr.  Tulliver's  mind  also  works  in  the  same  way :  having 
seen  one  lawyer  who  is  a  rascal,  he  thinks  all  are  rascals. 
In  planning  his  son's  education  he  declares,  "I  wouldn't 
make  a  downright  lawyer  o'  the  lad, — I  should  be  sorry 
for  him  to  be  a  raskill."  Later,  when  told  that  a  cer- 
tain book  is  hardly  suitable  for  a  child's  reading,  he  is 
much  surprised : 


198  ENGLISn    COMPOSITION 

Why,  it's  one  of  the  books  I  bou<?lit  at  Partridge's  sale. 
They  was  all  bound  alike, — it's  a  good  binding,  you  see, — 
and  I  thought  the3''d  be  all  good  books.  There's  Jeremy 
Taylor's  Holy  Living  and  Dying  among  'em;  I  read  in  it 
often  of  a  Sunday ;  and  there's  a  lot  more  of  'em,  sermons 
mostly,  I  think;  but  they've  all  got  the  same  covers,  and 
I  thought  they  were  all  o'  one  sample,  as  you  may  say. 
But  it  seems  one  mustn't  judge  by  th'  outside.  This  is  a 
puzzlin'  world. 

The  error  in  a  generalization  drawn  from  only  a  few 
particulars  is  forcibly  pointed  out  by  Charles  Reade  in 
one  of  his  essays,  The  Sham  Sample  Swindle: 

A  writer  produces  a  great  book.  With  all  its  beauties 
it  is  sure  to  have  flaws,  being  written  by  man,  who  is  an 
imperfect  creature.  The  sham  sample  swindler  picks  out 
the  flaw  or  flaws,  quotes  them  bodily,  which  gives  an  air 
of  honesty,  and  then  says,  "We  could  give  a  host  of  other 
examples,  but  these  will  serve  to  show  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  work." 

The  swindle  lies  in  the  words  italicized.  They  declare 
a  sham  sample  to  be  a  true  sample;  and,  observe,  this  is 
a  falsehood  that  cannot  fail  to  deceive  the  reader.  For 
why?  The  grain  of  truth  that  supports  the  falsehood  is 
shown;  the  mass  of  truth  that  contradicts  the  falsehood 
is  hidden. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  an  example  of  sound  generaliza- 
tion occurs  in  David  Hume's  essay  Of  Commerce  (1752). 
His  thesis  is  that  in  proportion  to  population  ancient 
nations  were  able  to  su})port  a  far  larger  army  than 
modern,  because  they  indulged  in  fewer  luxiu'ies.  This 
idea,  he  declares,  is  not  "merely  cliimerical,  but  is 
founded  on  history  and  experience."     He  proceeds: 

The  re))ublic  of  Sjiarta  was  certainly  more  jxiwerful 
than  any  state  now  in  tlie  work!  consisting  of  an  equal 
number  of  peoph";  and  this  was  owing  entirely  to  the  want 
of  commerce  and  luxurv.      The  Hi  botes  were  the  laborers; 


ARGUMENTATION"  199 

the  Spartans  were  the  soldiers,  or  gentlemen.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  labor  of  the  Heliotes  could  not  have  main- 
tained so  great  a  number  of  Spartans,  had  these  latter 
lived  in  ease  and  delicacy  and  given  employment  to  a  great 
variety  of  trades  and  manufactures.  The  like  policy  may 
be  remarked  in  Rome.  And  indeed,  throughout  all  ancient 
history  it  is  observable  that  the  smallest  republics  raised 
and  maintained  greater  armies  than  states  consisting  of 
triple  the  number  of  inhabitants  are  able  to  support  at 
present.  It  is  computed  that  in  all  European  nations  the 
proportion  between  soldiers  and  people  does  not  exceed 
one  to  a  hundred.  But  we  read  that  the  city  of  Rome 
alone,  with  its  small  territory,  raised  and  maintained  in 
early  times  ten  legions  against  the  Latins.  Athens,  whose 
whole  dominions  were  not  larger  tlian  Yorkshire,  sent  to 
the  expedition  against  Sicily  near  forty  thousand  men. 
Dionysius  the  Elder,  it  is  said,  maintained  a  standing  army 
of  a  hundred  thousand  foot  and  ten  thousand  horse,  beside 
a  large  fleet  of  four  hundred  sail,  though  his  territories 
extended  no  farther  than  the  city  of  Syracuse,  about  a 
third  part  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  some  seaport  towns, 
or  garrisons,  on  the  coast  of  Italy  and  Illyricum.  It  is 
true  the  ancient  armies  in  time  of  war  subsisted  much  upon 
plunder.  But  did  not  the  enemy  plunder  in  their  turn, 
which  was  a  more  ruinous  way  of  levying  a  tax  than  any 
that  could  be  devised?  In  short,  no  probable  reason  can 
be  assigned  for  the  great  power  of  the  more  ancient  states 
above  the  modern  but  their  want  of  commerce  and  luxury. 
Few  artisans  were  maintained  by  the  labor  of  the  farmers, 
and  therefore  more  soldiers  might  live  upon  it. 


This  evidence  is  not  so  conclusive  as  a  mathematical 
demonstration  that  the  area  of  a  triangle  is  to  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  base  by  half  the  altitude,  for  there 
may  be  some  causes  of  which  Hume  has  taken  no  account. 
But  in  spite  of  the  loophole  of  doubt  his  generalization 
is  at  least  highly  probable.  Perhaps  even  more  con- 
vincing is  the  generalization  in  Evolution  of  the  Horse, 
page  153.     Professor  Marsh  examined  thirty  fossils  of 


200  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 

the  horse  family,  and  as  he  found  a  regular  development 
from  the  earliest  to  the  latest,  he  was  justified  in  the 
generalization  that  the  modern  horse  is  evolved  from  a 
prehistoric  animal.  A  scientific  investigator  may  often 
arrive  at  generalizations  which  are  indisputably  true; 
but  in  most  complicated  social  and  political  questions  the 
generalization  is  at  best  merely  probable.  The  degree 
of  probability  determines  its  value,  the  space  and  em- 
phasis which  it  deserv^es. 

The  reverse  of  this  process  of  drawing  a  general  prin- 
ciple from  particular  cases  is  the  application  of  a  gen- 
eral principle  to  a  particular  case.  We  assume  that  what 
is  true  of  known  members  of  a  class  is  also  true  of  the 
unknown  members.  But  the  fact,  which  we  have  just 
obser\^ed,  that  most  generalizations — except  scientific 
laws,  like  the  law  of  gravitation — express  probability 
rather  than  certainty,  suggests  caution.  When  the  gen- 
eralization is  unsound,  like  Mrs.  Tulliver's  about  the 
false  shirt-fronts  or  Mr.  Tulliver's  about  the  books  in 
similar  binding,  it  leads  to  grotesque  error,  to  a  complete 
fallacy. 

Even  when  the  generalization  is  sound,  that  is,  when 
it  expresses  a  strong  probability,  it  cannot  alwaj's  be 
trusted :  in  some  special  instance  it  may  fail.  Although 
the  better  apples  are  usually  on  top  of  the  barrel,  a  few 
barrels  are  not  packed  on  this  plan.  First  appearances 
often  deceive;  but  it  is  not  safe  to  infer  that  every  hon- 
est-looking man  is  a  rascal.  Barking  dogs  never  bite — 
hardly  ever;  yet  the  next  dog  one  meets  may  be  the 
unpleasant  exception.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  discussion 
of  testimonial  evidence,  a  criminal,  a  man  who  has  a 
motive  for  lying,  a  stupid  or  a  prejudiced  person,  is  a 


ARGUMEKTATION"  201 

poor  witness;  nevertheless  he  may  tell  the  exact  truth, 
and  his  testimony  cannot  be  rejected  outright.  John 
Stuart  Mill  writes: 

Look  at  a  youth  who  has  never  been  out  of  his  family 
circle:  he  never  dreams  of  any  other  opinions  or  ways  of 
thinking  than  those  he  has  been  bred  up  in;  or,  if  he  has 
heard  of  any  such,  attributes  them  to  some  moral  defect 
or  inferiority  of  nature  or  education.  If  his  family  are 
Tory,  he  cannot  conceive  the  possibility  of  being  a  Lib- 
eral; if  Liberal,  of  being  a  Tory. — Inaugural  Address  at 
St.  Andrews. 

Mill,  however,  would  have  been  the  first  to  admit  that 
a  few  boys  rise  above  the  prejudices  of  family  and 
social  surroundings,  and  to  protest  against  making  an 
inference  from  his  general  rule  to  every  particular 
case. 

These  illustrations  show  that  to  argue  from  general 
principles  may  sometimes  be  as  unwise  as  to  hang  a  man 
on  general  principles.  The  principle  may  for  some  un- 
foreseen cause  fail  to  operate  as  surely  as  a  superficial 
examination  of  the  question  might  tempt  one  to  suppose. 
For  example,  a  boy  once  wrote  an  elaborate  argument 
to  prove  that  if  the  chief  executive  officers  of  a  nation 
are  chosen  by  the  majority  party  in  the  legislature,  the 
executive  will  no  longer  be  a  check  upon  the  legislature, 
and  the  government  will  be  wrecked.  The  main  objec- 
tion to  his  reasoning  is  that  for  many  years  the  English 
government  has  been  successfully  conducted  upon  this 
condemned  plan.  The  futility  of  such  an  argument  is 
what  makes  Burke  speak  with  contempt  of  "mere  gen- 
eral theories  of  government."  When  Burke  said  this  he 
also  had  in  mind  a  notable  instance  of  arguing  from 
general  principles,  which  occurred  in  the  English  Par- 


202  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

Hament  when  disputes  with  the  American  colonies  were 
under  debate.  One  party  advocated  the  theory  that  an 
exliibition  of  royal  authority  and  of  "firmness  and  reso- 
lution" would  overawe  the  colonists.  But  the  principle 
failed  wretchedly  in  practice,  as  Burke  noted  a  year 
later  in  the  Speech  on  Conciliation: 

We  wholly  abrogated  the  ancient  government  of  ^las- 
sachusetts.  We  were  confident  tliat  the  first  feeling, 
if  not  the  very  prospect  of  anarchy,  would  instantly  en- 
force a  complete  submission.  Tlie  experiment  was  tried. 
A  new,  strange,  unexpected  face  of  tilings  appeared. 
Anarchy  is  found  tolerable.  A  vast  province  has  now 
subsisted,  and  subsisted  in  a  considerable  degree  of  health 
and  vigor,  for  near  a  twelvemonth,  without  governor,  with- 
out public  council,  without  judges,  without  executive  mag- 
istrates. How  long  it  will  continue  in  this  state,  or  what 
may  arise  out  of  this  unheard-of  situation,  how  can  the 
wisest  of  us  conjecture?  Our  late  experience  has  taught 
us  that  many  of  those  fundamental  principles  formerly 
believed  infallible  are  either  not  of  the  importance  they 
were  imagined  to  be,  or  that  we  have  not  at  all  adverted 
to  some  other  far  more  important  and  far  more  powerful 
principles,  which  entirely  overrule  those  we  had  consid- 
ered as  omnipotent. 

The  inference  from  a  general  rule  to  a  particular  case 
— unless  the  rule  be  an  immutable  natural  law — seldom 
carries  one  beyond  a  probability.  According  to  an  old 
story,  a  Sophist  proved  to  Diogenes  that  Diogenes  could 
not  walk.  Diogenes,  not  unlike  the  American  colonists, 
refuted  the  Sophist  by  getting  up  and  walking  round 
his  tub.  The  tale  may  be  regarded  as  an  allegory,  a 
reminder  of  the  teaching  of  daily  experience  that  the 
most  fallacious  of  all  sophistries  is  the  notion  that  there 
can  be  a  "geometrical  accuracy"  in  a  complex  political 
or  moral  argument.     The  immediate  lesson   for  young 


ARGUMENTATIOK  203 

writers  is  a  warning  against  the  assignment  of  large 
space  or  conspicuous  position  to  an  unsupported  infer- 
ence from  general  theory. 

Correct  Inferences. — There  remain  to  be  considered 
inferences  which  are  indubitably  sound.  In  this  class  are 
deductions  from  well  understood  and  unchanging  laws 
of  nature.  Finding  an  apple  lying  under  an  apple-tree, 
one  may  infer  with  practical  certainty  that  it  has  fallen 
from  one  of  the  branches.  One  of  Huxley's  lectures  con- 
tains an  argniment  to  show  that  all  chalk  "is  the  dried 
mud  of  the  ancient  sea."  Huxley  first  proves  the  "essen- 
tial identity"  of  the  material  of  chalk  and  of  the  present 
sea  mud.  He  then  adds  another  proof,  based  upon  the 
unfailing  operation  of  natural  law: 

There  are  at  the  present  day  certain  groups  of  animals 
which  are  never  found  in  fresh  waters,  being  unable  to 
live  anywhere  but  in  the  sea.  Such  are  the  corals ;  those 
corallines  which  are  called  Polyzoa;  those  creatures  which 
fabricate  tlie  lamp-shells,  and  are  called  Brachiopoda;  the 
pearly  Nautilus,  and  all  animals  allied  to  it;  and  all  the 
forms  of  sea-urchins  and  star-fishes.  Not  only  are  all 
these  creatures  confined  to  salt  water  at  the  present  day, 
but,  so  far  as  our  records  of  the  past  go,  the  conditions 
of  their  existence  have  been  the  same:  hence,  their  occur- 
rence in  any  deposit  is  as  strong  evidence  as  can  be  ob- 
tained that  that  deposit  was  formed  in  the  sea.  Now  the 
remains  of  animals  of  all  the  kinds  which  have  been  enu- 
merated occur  in  the  chalk  in  greater  or  less  abundance; 
while  not  one  of  those  forms  of  shell-fish  which  are  char- 
acteristic of  fresh  water  has  yet  been  observed  in  it. 
When  we  consider  tliat  the  remains  of  more  than  three 
thousand  distinct  species  of  aquatic  animals  have  been 
discovered  among  the  fossils  of  the  chalk,  that  the  great 
majority  of  them  are  of  such  forms  as  are  now  met  with 
only  in  the  sea,  and  that  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
any  one  of  them  inhabited  fresh  water,  the  collateral  evi- 
dence that  the  chalk  represents  an  ancient  sea-bottom  ac- 


204  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

quires  as  great  force  as  the  proof  derived  from  the  nature 
of  the  chalk  itself. — On  a  Piece  of  Chalk. 

From  such  proof  Huxley  is  justified  in  reaching  a  con- 
clusion which  he  states  without  huts,  ifs,  or  perhapses: 

We  have  as  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  all  the 
vast  area  of  dry  land  at  j)resent  occupied  by  the  chalk 
was  once  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  we  have  for  any 
matter  of  history  whatever. 

Circumstantial  evidence  of  this  type  is  the  only  kind 
that  by  itself  is  absolutely  convincing.  Yet  several  bits 
of  circumstantial  evidence,  of  varying  value,  but  all 
pointing  to  the  same  conclusion,  may,  when  united,  be 
convincing.  No  one  alone  would  be  sufficient,  would 
be  worth  much  consideration,  but  together  they  may  be 
overwhelming.  Then  each,  by  reinforcing  the  other  evi- 
dence, acquires  added  weight  and  is  entitled  to  conspicu- 
ous position  and  large  space.  The  following  case  will 
illustrate  the  principle: 

A.  was  found  dead  of  a  gunshot  wound,  and  the  singed 
paper  that  had  been  used  for  wadding  Lay  near  him.  It 
was  a  fragment  of  the  Times.  B.'s  house  was  searched, 
and  they  found  there  a  gun  recently  discharged,  and  the 
copy  of  the  Times  from  which  the  singed  paper  aforesaid 
had  been  torn ;  the  pieces  fitted  exactly. 

The  same  thing  haj^pened  in  France  with  a  slight  vari- 
ation ;  the  jiajjcr  used  for  wadding  was  part  of  an  old  bre- 
viary, subsequently  found  in   li.'s  house. 

The  salient  facts  of  each  case  made  a  treble  coincidence. 
What  was  the  result?  The  treble  coincidence,  sworn, 
cross-examined,  and  unshaken,  lianged  the  f2nglishman 
and  guillotined  the  Frenchman.  In  neither  case  was  there 
a  scintilla  of  direct  evidence;  in  neither  case  was  the  ver- 
dict impugned. 

I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  say  that  a  genuine  double 
coincidence,   proved   beyond   doubt,    is    not   twice,   but   two 


AKGUMENTATION  205 

hundred  times,  as  strong  as  one  such  coincidence,  and  that 
a  genuine  treble  coincidence  is  many  thousand  times  as 
strong  as  one  such  coincidence. — Charles  Reade  in  The 
Doctrine  of  Coincidences. 

The  gun  recently  discharged  might  alone  be  worth  little 
or  no  attention;  but  when  coupled  with  the  wadding 
which  fits  exactly  into  a  copy  of  the  Times,  it  becomes 
an  important  link  in  the  chain  leading  to  the  guilt  of  B. 
On  the  other  hand,  evidence  that  might  in  itself  seem 
highly  significant  may  be  so  weakened  by  contradictory 
evidence — testimonial  or  circumstantial — that  it  hardly 
deserves  passing  notice.  In  short,  one  must  test  every 
bit  of  evidence  in  its  relation  to  all  the  rest,  and,  on 
the  basis  of  a  survey  of  the  whole  case,  decide  how  fully 
to  present  each  part. 

Summary  of  Circumstantial  Evidence. — In  a  summary 
of  the  foregoing  suggestions  in  regard  to  circumstantial 
evidence  two  facts  must  be  steadily  borne  in  mind:  first, 
in  most  debatable  questions  in  politics,  sociology,  and 
morals  no  complete  demonstration,  like  those  of  mathe- 
matics or  the  sciences,  is  possible;  the  most  that  the 
argument  can  do  is  to  establish  a  strong  probability; 
second,  no  piece  of  evidence,  as  has  just  been  said,  can 
be  intelligently  estimated  except  in  connection  with  all 
the  rest.  With  these  provisos,  one  must  remember  that 
the  inferences  from  circumstantial  evidence  fall  into 
three  classes : 

First,  those  which  are  absolutely  incorrect,  the  falla- 
cies, including:  inferences  from  confused  definitions; 
from  invented  examples ;  from  figures  of  speech  or  fanci- 
ful resemblances;  and  from  the  supposition  that  a  rela- 
tion of  cause  and  effect  exists  where  none  is  possible, 


306  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

where  the  relation  is  obviously  nothing  but  that  of  mere 
sequence  in  time. 

Second,  those  which  are  doubtful,  including:  infer- 
ences from  conflicting  evidence;  from  ambiguous  evi- 
dence, which  points  to  two  or  more  conclusions;  from 
examples  that  may  not  fully  apply  ;  from  generalizations 
based  on  but  few  instances ;  and  from  the  application  of 
a  general  ])rinciple  to  a  case  in  which  it  may  not  operate. 

Third,  those  which  are  wholly  convincing,  including: 
inferences  from  well  understood  and  immutable  laws  of 
nature ;  and  from  several  coincidences  all  pointing  to  the 
same  conclusion. 

These  three  classifications  are  plainly  nothing  more 
than  a  codification  of  the  common-sense  principles  by 
which  men,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  are  guided  in 
the  paths  of  sound  reasoning. 

LIMITS   OF   THE   ARGUMENT 

Analysis  of  the  question  and  of  the  evidence  marks 
pretty  clearly  the  limits  of  the  argument,  shows  what 
should  be  included  and  what  excluded.  The  question 
itself  or,  better  still,  the  final  statement  of  the  issue, 
serves  as  topic-sentence  to  guide  the  writer.  Whatever 
bears  on  this  sentence,  tends  to  prove  the  proposition,  is 
admissible  on  the  principle  of  unity  ;  whatever  docs  not 
help  to  convince  or  persuade  the  reader  must  be  rejected. 

The  chief  error  of  omission  not  already  treated  in  the 
discussion  of  evidence  is  that  of  merely  stating  objec- 
tions to  a  policy,  without  considering  what  may  be  said 
for  and  against  alternative  policies.  Almost  every  un- 
dertaking, public  or  private,  involves  some  disadvantage 
or  risk.      If  a  man  never  stepped  forward  till  the  last 


AKGUMENTATION  207 

objection  to  his  advance  was  removed,  he  might  stand 
still  forever.  Shall  he  vote  the  Democratic  ticket?  He 
sees  objections,  but  he  also  sees  objections  to  joining 
the  Republicans.  He  can  decide  only  by  weighing  the 
arguments  on  both  sides.  Shall  the  United  States  deny 
independence  to  the  Filipinos?  To  such  denial  there 
are  many  objections;  and  yet  granting  independence  is 
attended  with  practical  difficulties,  for  instance,  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  stable  government.  Shall  Smith  enter 
college?  He  hesitates  because  of  expense,  of  desire  to 
start  early  in  business,  and  of  dislike  of  the  classics.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  is  urged  to  go  by  his  father,  who  will 
try  to  supply  the  money.  He  may  succeed  better  in 
business  if  he  devotes  three  or  four  years  more  to  train- 
ing his  mind ;  and  though  not  interested  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  he  is  fond  of  science.  In  the  selection,  Folly  of 
Using'  Force  with  the  Colonies,  page  152,  Burke  sets 
forth  his  objections  to  force;  but  this  is  not  the  whole 
of  his  speech,  for,  realizing  that  there  are  also  objec- 
tions to  conciliation,  he  goes  on  to  say : 

But  there  is  still  behind  a  third  consideration  concern- 
ing this  object,  which  serves  to  determine  my  opinion  on 
the  sort  of  policy  which  ought  to  be  pursued  in  the  man- 
agement of  America. 

Then  Burke  dwells  at  great  length  on  the  positive  bene- 
fits from  conciliation.  So  it  is  in  all  the  questions  of 
daily  life.  A  mere  presentation  of  objections  is  often 
less  than  half  the  argument. 

The  preceding  pages  contain  many  warnings  against 
admitting  worthless  evidence.  But  limits  of  space  often 
compel  one  to  leave  out  evidence  of  more  or  less  value. 
The  problem  is  to  pack  the  strongest  argument  into  five 


208  EXGLISir    COMPOSITIOX 

Imiulrcd  words,  a  thousand,  or  whatever  the  Icngtli 
assigned.  If  the  argument  overrun  bounds,  one  must, 
as  in  narration,  description,  and  exposition,  cut  it  down 
by  throwing  away  the  poorest  matter. 

39.  Order  in  Argumentation. — For  order  in  argumen- 
tation the  suggestions  in  the  other  chapters  are  gen- 
erally applicable.  In  Wood's  Coinage,  page  150,  a 
passage  of  narration  follows  the  order  of  events.  In 
the  Evolution  of  the  Horse,  153,  a  structure  is  handled, 
as  in  description,  by  taking  one  part  after  another  ac- 
cording to  a  regular  plan.  The  order  may,  as  in  many 
expositions,  be  determined  by  explaining  first  the  points 
on  which  other  arguments  depend  or  by  proceeding  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex  or  from  the  less  to  the  more 
interesting  and  important.  In  The  Honor  System,  160, 
remarks  on  behavior  precede  those  on  character,  for  the 
argument  about  character  depends  upon  what  has  been 
said  concerning  behavior.  In  The  AboUtioii  of  Capital 
Punishment,  156,  the  actual  effects  of  abolition  are  put 
last  because  they  are  the  most  important.  Were  capital 
punishment  inhumane  and  unjust,  people  might  stick  to 
it  for  the  sake  of  protecting  society  ;  but  its  failure  to 
protect  is  the  knock-down  blow.  In  the  FoUij  of  Using 
Force  zcith  the  Colonies,  152,  Burke  proceeds  from  the 
less  to  the  more  important,  and  ends  with  experience, 
the  supreme  test  of  any  policy. 

A  plan  which  is  common  because  it  is  easy,  is  to 
divide  material  into  two  parts:  })ositive  arguments,  in 
support  of  the  proposition,  and  negative,  in  answer  to 
the  opposing  side;  that  is,  direct  proof,  as  it  is  some- 
times termed,  and  refutation.  This  division  is  often 
artificial  and  illogical;   for,  just  as   in  exposition,  the 


ARGUMEXTATIOK  209 

discussion  of  one  aspect  of  a  subject  should  usually  in- 
clude all  that  is  to  be  said  under  that  head,  for  and 
against.  In  The  Abolition  of  Capital  Punishment  the 
third  paragraph,  on  humanity,  contains  refutation  be- 
longing under  that  caption ;  and  the  seventh  paragraph 
contains  refutation  as  part  of  the  argument  in  regard 
to  protection  of  society.  In  The  Honor  System  the 
second  paragraph  is  devoted  to  the  positive  arguments 
on  behavior,  the  third  to  the  refutation ;  and  the  fourth 
paragraph  includes  everything  on  character,  most  of  it 
refutation.  In  general,  clearness  requires  a  writer  to 
finish  one  phase  of  a  topic,  both  direct  proof  and  refu- 
tation, before  proceeding  to  another. 

All  these  general  principles  of  arrangement,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say,  apply  to  the  order  both  of  the 
argument  as  a  whole  and  of  the  minor  details  within 
any  one  division  of  it.  Under  the  discussion  of  protec- 
tion of  society,  for  instance,  the  evidence  may  be  set 
forth  in  the  order  of  climax,  the  strongest  last. 

In  argument,  as  in  all  other  kinds  of  writing,  it  is 
now  and  then  worth  while  to  depart  a  little  from  the 
strict  logical  order  for  the  sake  of  bringing  forward  at 
the  beginning  a  striking  or  interesting  point  to  arrest 
the  attention  of  the  reader. 

Since  an  argument  must  often  be  thought  out  more 
carefully  than  writing  of  other  kinds,  the  plan,  or  brief, 
should  be  prepared  somewhat  more  elaborately,  and 
should  be  so  phrased  as  to  exhibit  the  exact  relation  of 
parts.  If  the  brief  be  drawn,  as  in  the  following  exam- 
ples, with  complete  sentences  instead  of  mere  headings, 
the  whole  structure  is  evident  at  a  glance.  One  can  see 
whether  the  various  pieces  of  evidence  are  placed  where 


210  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

they  belong,  wliethcr  the  leading  ideas  and  the  subordi- 
nate are  properly  distinguished,  and  whether  the  order 
is  logical  throughout. 

QUESTION 

Should  capital  punishment  be  abolished?   (page  156). 

INTRODUCTION 

I.   The  history  of  the  subject  shows: 

A.  In  the  reign  of  George  the  Third  in  England 
some  two  hundred  felonies  were  punishable  with 
death. 

B.  One  crime  after  another  has  been  stricken  from 
the  list  till  only  murder  is   left. 

C.  The  question  of  abolishing  capital  punishment  is 
brought  forward  by  the  execution  of  every  no- 
torious criminal. 

II.  The  theor}'^  of  punishment 

A.  Used  to  be  vengeance, 

B.  Is  now  reformation  of  the  criminal. 
III.  The  issue  is : 

A.  Does  humanity  demand  the  application  of  the 
principle  of  reformation  to  murderers  as  well  as 
to  other  criminals  .^ 

B.  Does  justice   demand   it? 

C.  Will  abolition  of  capital  punishment  remove  the 
safeguards  of  society  ? 

BRIEF    PROPER 

ProposUion :  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished;  for 
I.   Humanity  demands  it;  for 

Refutation 

A'.  One  of  the  arguments  urged  in  behalf  of  the 
death  penalty  is  that  we  should  obey  the  Old 
Testament  law  of  a  life  for  a  life. 

A.   This  arginuent  is  not  tenable;   for 

i.   It  has  in  it  the  notion  of  vengeance. 


AEGUMENTATION  311 

ii.   Such    a   motive   has    been    outgrown    in    Amer- 
ica; for 
a.  To  play  the  part  of  a  savage  and  vent  spite 

on   a  criminal  is   unworthy  of   a  great  and 

humane  nation. 

Direct  Proof 

II.  Justice  demands  abolition;  because 

A.  Capital  punishment  takes  little  account  of   moral 
guilt;  for 

i.  The  man  who  by  accident  fails  in  an  attempt 
at  murder  is  simply  imprisoned  and  has  a 
chance  to  reform,  while  the  man  who  succeeds, 
though  his  intentions  are  no  more  evil,  is  put 
to  death. 

B.  No   human   tribunal   can   determine   the   exact  de- 
gree of  guilt  and  the  appropriate  retribution;  for 
i.   Inherited  tendencies,   environment,   and  a  thou- 
sand causes  lying  outside  the  criminal's  will  may 
have  influenced  him. 

ii.   He  may  not  be  in  full  possession  of  his  senses; 

for 

a.   Such    was   the    fact    in    the   case    of    Henry 
Barker,  executed  at  Sing  Sing. 
iii.   The  power  to  settle  a  man's  fate  irrevocably  can 

be  exercised  justly  only  by  the  Omniscient. 

C.  Innocent  men  be  hanged ;  for 

i.  There  are  several  instances,  Wiggin  in  England 
in  1867  and  Hayes  and  Stone  in  1873,  in  which 
death  has  put  beyond  the  reach  of  rescue  or 
pardon  men  who  were  afterward  found  to  be 
innocent. 
III.   The  death  penalty  does  not  protect  society;   for 

Refutation 

A'.   It  is  urged  that  the  execution  does  protect  society ; 
for 

i'.   It    strikes   the    imagination    of    ordinary   men 
and  women  more  than  any  other  punishment, 
ii'.  The  disgrace  of  it  is  a  deterrent  from  crime, 
A.   This  argument  is  a  weak  one;  because 


212  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

i.  Lessening  of  tlie  severity  of  punishment  has 
not  been  followed  by  an  increase  of  crime ;  for 
a.  Life  and  property  are  more  secure  in  Eng- 
land to-day  than   in    the  eighteenth   century. 

ii.  Human  nature  being  what  it  is,  a  criminal  will 
trust  to  luck  rather  than  weigh  nicely  the  rela- 
tive pains  and  disgraces  of  hanging  and  im- 
prisonment. 

Direct  Proof 

B.   There  is  abundant  proof  that  abolition  of  capital 
punishment  has  not  increased  crime;   for 
i.   We   can   cite   the   experiences   of   foreign   coun- 
tries,   Holland,    Belgium,    Portugal,    and    Fin- 
land, 
ii.   We  can  cite  the  experience  of  our  own  country; 
for 

a.  Abolition  has  worked  well  in  several  states ; 
for 

1.  In    Michigan    after    abolition    murders    de- 
creased   relative   to    the    popidation. 

2.  In    Wisconsin    we   have   the   testimony   of 
Governor  ^^^'lshburn. 

3.  In  Iowa  that  of  Senator  Jessup. 

b.  The  retention  of  capital  punishment  in  most 
of   the  states   has   not   made   life   safer;    for 

1.  Statistics  collected  by  the  Chicago  Trib- 
une show  that,  in  spite  of  numerous  exe- 
cutions, the  number  of  murders  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population  has  largely 
increased  throughout  the  whole  country 
since    1881. 

2.  The  attorney-general  of  Massachusetts  tes- 
tified that  "punishment  by  hanging  does 
not  prevent  or  diminish  crime." 

QUESTION 

Should    the    Academy    adopt   the    honor    system.^    (page 
160). 

I.   The  honor  system  as  adopted  at  St.  Swithin's  School 
provides : 


ARGUMENTATION  213 

A.  That  the  teachers  shall  retain  control  of  studies 
and   class    standing; 

B.  That  all  discipline  for  conduct  shall  be  admin- 
istered by  a  committee  of  two  from  each  class; 

C.  That  every  boy  shall  report  to  the  committee 
whenever  he  notices  an  infraction  of  the  rules, 
and  that  upon  this  and  other  information  the 
committee   shall   act. 

II.   The   plan   has   worked  so   well   at   St.    Swithin's   that 
some  of  our  three  hundred  students  want  to  try  it. 
III.  The  issue  is: 

A.  Whether  the  system  would  secure  better  behavior; 

B.  Whether  it  would  improve  our  characters. 

BRIEF    PROPER 

Proposition :  The  Academy   should  not  adopt  the  honor 
system;  for 

I.   It  would  have  a  bad  eifect  upon  behavior;  for 

A.  The  sneaks  would  get  off  scot-free;   because 

i.  But  few  misdemeanors  would  be  reported ; 
because 

a.  The  majority  of  our  pupils  would  not  feel 
bound    to    support    the    system    enthusiasti- 
cally ;   for 
1.   They  do  not  want  it;  for 

X.   They  would  hate  to  be  tale-bearers. 

B.  The  prosperous  dishonesty  of  the  sneaks  would 
be  a  standing  temptation  and  would  demoralize 
many  lads  who,  though  not  vicious,  are  rather 
weak-kneed;   for 

i.  This  was  the  result  at  Wilford  Academy,  about 
the  size  of  this  institution,  which  tried  the  plan 
and  had  to  abandon  it. 

Refutation 

C.  Defenders  of  the  system  argue  that  it  will  make 
all  the  pupils  behave  better;  because 

i'.   Everybody  will  try  to  make  everybody  else  be 
good;  for 

a'.   Each  will  want  his  friends  to  walk  a  straight 
line;  for 


214  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

l'.  He   will  not  want   to   report  the   delin- 
quencies of  friends. 
C.  This  argument  does  not  apply  to  our  Academy; 
because 

i.  A  fast  set  miglit  form  here  that  would  ignore 
the  wishes  of  the  rest ;  for 

a.   The   conditions   are   not  the   same   as   at   St. 
Swithin's ;  for 

1.  St.  Swithin's  is  a  small  school,  with  the 
boys  divided  into  families,  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  masters  and  intimate  with 
each  other. 

2.  In  the  Academy,  which  is  five  times  as 
large,  many  of  the  boys  are  acquainted 
but  slightly  and  care  little  for  the  good 
opinion  of  mere  acquaintances. 

Direct  Proof 
II.   It  would  have  a  bad  effect  upon  character;  for 

Refutation 

A'.  Some  argue  that  character  will  be  strengthened; 
because 
i'.  Each    student   will   be    fortified   by   his    sense 
of  responsibility  for  his  own  conduct  and  the 
tone  of  the  school. 

A.  This  argument  does  not  apply  here;  because 

i.   Eacli  man   is  alread}^   thrown   very  largely  on 

his  own  responsibility. 
11.  Each  would  be  weakened  rather  than  strength- 
ened b}'  tlie  presence  of  a   crowd   wliich  mis- 
behaved  witli   impunity. 
ill.  We  should  not  feel  keenly  responsible  for  the 
tone  of  the  school;  for 
a.  Many  of  us  oppose  the  system. 

Direct    Proof 

B.  Lowering  of  the  tone  of  the   school  would  affect 
all  our  characters   unfavorablv. 


ARGUMENTATION"  215 

Constructing  detailed  briefs  is  in  itself  excellent  drill 
in  Avhat  may  be  called  the  architecture  of  composition ; 
and  since  on  the  basis  of  a  carefully  criticised  brief  the 
pupil  can  proceed  more  intelligently  in  the  final  writing 
of  the  argument,  most  teachers  require  an  advance  brief 
for  correction  and  comment.  To  serve  its  purpose  as 
a  class  exercise,  a  brief  must  set  forth  two  things:  the 
exposition  of  the  question  and  the  analysis  of  the  evi- 
dence; that  is,  it  must  indicate,  first,  whatever  is  worth 
saying  as  to  the  origin  and  history  of  the  question,  the 
definition  of  terms,  and  the  points  at  issue;  and,  sec- 
ondly, what  the  evidence  is  and  how  it  is  marshalled 
in  support  of  the  proposition.  The  brief  is  therefore 
divided  into  two  parts:  the  introduction  and  the  brief 
proper.  When  the  argument  is  long,  a  summary,  or 
recapitulation,  may  also  be  necessary. 

The  introduction  is  much  like  the  plan  of  any  expo- 
sition, except  that  it  is  fuller;  and  the  heads  and  sub- 
heads, instead  of  being  mere  phrases,  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  definite  statements,  complete  sentences.  In  both 
the  preceding  introductions  the  heads  and  subheads, 
taken  together,  form  sentences.  This  type  of  introduc- 
tion is  far  more  useful  tlian  the  following  bald  and  dis- 
jointed outlines,  which  do  not  supply  the  teacher  suffi- 
cient data  for  criticism: 

QUESTION 

Should  capital  punishment  be  abolished? 

INTRODUCTION 

I.  History  of  the  question. 

A.  In  the  reign  of  George  the  Third. 

B.  Changes  in  punishment. 

C.  Execution  of  notorious  criminals. 


216  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

II.  Theories  of  punishment. 

A.  Vengeance. 

B.  Reformation. 
III.   Issue: 

A.  Hunianit}'. 

B.  Justice. 

C.  Safety  of  society. 

QUESTION 

Should  the  Academy  adopt  the  honor  system? 

INTRODUCTION 

I.  Honor  system  at  St.  Swithin's  School. 

A.  Duty  of  teachers. 

B.  Honor  committee. 

C.  Information   for  committee. 
II.   Success  of  plan  at  St.  Swithin's. 

III.   Issue: 

A.  Behavior. 

B.  Character. 

The  licads  should  be  marked  to  indicate  the  relation 
of  ideas ;  chat  is,  one  set  of  numerals — say  I,  II,  III,  IV 
- — for  the  leading,  and  another — A,  B,  C — for  the  sub- 
ordinate. 

The  following  examples  exhibit  tlie  right  and  the 
wrong  way  of  drafting  the  introduction.  In  the  sec- 
ond column  the  forms  are  general  hints  as  to  the  plan ; 
in  the  first,  comj)lete  statements  whicli  anyone  can  under- 
stand. 

QUESTION 

Should  Albany  adopt  a  curfew  law?  (page  l(i5). 

INTRODUCTION 
RIGHT  WRONG 

I.  The    movement    for    a  I.   Histor}^  of  movement, 

curfew  law, 

A.   Started      in       1 89 1  A.   Beginning, 

with  the  Boj's'  and 


ARGUMENTATION 


217 


Girls'  National 
Home  Association ; 
B.  Has  spread  to 
many  cities  and 
towns. 

II.  The  laws  generally 
forbid  children  under 
sixteen  from  being  on 
the  street  after  nine 
o'clock  at  night,  un- 
less, 

A.  Accompanied  by 
parent  or  guar- 
dian ; 

B.  Or  bearing  an  au- 
thorization from 
parent  or  guar- 
dian. 

III.  Both  sides  admit: 

A.  That  the  law  would 
benefit  children 
whose  homes  are 
respectable ; 

B.  That  in  Albany  the 
law  would  apply  to 
many  children  of 
the  lowest  class. 

IV.  The  issue  is: 

A.  Whether  the  law 
can  be  enforced; 

B.  Whether,  if  en- 
forced, it  will  be 
adv^antageous  t  o 
the  children  most 
affected. 


B.  Spread. 


II.   ScojDe  of  laws. 


III.  What    is    conceded    by 
both  sides : 

A.  As  regards  respect- 
able children; 


B.  As  regards  others. 


IV.   The  issue: 

A.  Possibility    of    en- 
forcement. 

B.  Effect    of   enforce- 
ment. 


QUESTION 


Should  a  college   grant  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts 
in  three  years.''  (page  l65). 


218 


ENGLISH    COMl'OSITION 


INTRODUCTION 


I.   My  premises  are: 

A.  That  a  college  edu- 
cation is  a  good 
tiling; 

B.  That  the  choice  is 
between  three 
years   and   four. 

II.   The  issue   is  whether  a 
three-year  course  would, 

A.  Make  graduates 
better  members  of 
society ; 

B.  Render  them  more 
successful  in  their 
callings ; 

C.  Broaden  or  narrow 
that  cultivation  of 
the  mind  which  is 
the  aim  of  college 
education. 


I.    Premises: 

A.  As  to  college  edu- 
cation ; 

B.  As  to  choice  be- 
tween three  years 
and  four. 

II.   The  issue: 

A.  Usefulness  in  so- 
ciety ; 

B.  Professional  suc- 
cess; 

C.  Mental    cultivation 


In  the  brief  proper  the  heads  and  subheads,  taken 
together,  also  form  sentences.  The  connectives  between 
the  leading  and  subordinate  clauses  are  invariably 
"for"  or  "because."  Thus  in  the  brief  on  the  honor 
system  the  proposition  is  joined  to  I,  I  to  A,  A  to  i, 
i  to  a,  a  to  1,  and  1  to  x,  by  either  "for"  or  "because." 

The  main  heads  contain  arguments,  not  necessarily 
the  weightiest,  which  innncd lately  support  the  proposi- 
tion ;  the  next  set  of  heads  contains  arguments,  impor- 
tant or  unimportant,  which  support  the  main  heads ;  and 
so  on  through  the  series.  In  the  brief  just  referred  to 
the  proposition  is  supported  by  I,  I  by  A,  A  by  i,  i  by  a, 
a  by  1,  and  1  by  x. 

One  of  the  common  errors   in   drafting  briefs   is   to 


ARGUMENTATION  219 

transpose  the  order  of  leading  and  subordinate  heads, 
in  the  following  fashion: 

Proposition:  The  Academy  should  not  adopt  the  honor 
system;   for 

I.   The  majority  of  students  would  hate  to  be  tale-bearers; 
hence 
A.   They  do  not  want  it;  therefore 

i.   They  would  not  feel  bound  to  support  the  system 
enthusiastically ;  accordingly 

a.   But  few  misdemeanors  would  be  reported;  thus 
1.   The  sneaks  would  get  off  scot-free;  hence 
X.  The  system  would  have  a  bad  effect  upon 
character. 

From  this  fault  one  may  be  saved  by  applying  a  very 
simple  test.  If  such  connectives  as  "hence,"  "therefore," 
or  "accordingly"  be  needed  to  make  sense  between  lead- 
ing and  subordinate  arguments,  the  order  is  wrong;  if 
"for"  or  "because,"  the  order  is  right. 

The  headings  should  be  uniform,  so  that  those  marked 
I,  II,  III — if  those  be  the  symbols  chosen — always  sup- 
port the  proposition,  and  those  marked  A,  B,  C  support 
heads  marked  I,  II,  III.  That  is,  eacli  new  set  of  letters 
or  figures  indicates  arguments  removed  one  step  farther 
from  the  proposition. 

Two  or  more  arguments  crowded  into  one  head  pro- 
duce confusion.  A  comparison  of  the  following  briefs 
of  the  third  paragraph  in  Folhj  of  Using  Force  with 
the  Colonies,  page  152,  is  sufficient  illustration: 


II.   Force  is   uncertain;   for      II.   Force   is   uncertain;   for 

A.    It    does    not    always  A.   It    does    not    always 

produce  terror.  produce    terror,    and 

an   armament   is  not 
a  victory. 


220 


EXGLISH    COMPOSITIO^r 


B.  If  Tou  do  not  suc- 
ceed, you  are  with- 
out resource ;  for 


i.  Conciliation  fail- 
ing, force  re- 
mains ;  and  force 
failing,  no  hope  of 
conciliation  is  left. 
Power  and  autlior- 
ity  are  sometimes 
bought  by  kind- 
ness, but  they  can 
never  be  begged 
as  alms  by  an  im- 
poverished and  de- 
feated violence. 


B.  An  armament  is  not 
a  victory. 

C.  If  you  do  not  suc- 
ceed, you  are  with- 
out resource;   for 

i.   Conciliation     fail- 
ing, force  remains. 
ii.   Force  failing,  no 
hope   of   concilia- 
tion is  left;   for 
a.    Though  power 
and    authority 
are   sometimes 
bought    by 
kindness,  they 
can    never    be 
begged    as 
alms     by      an 
impoverished 
and     defeated 
violence. 


In  the  second  column  the  logical  relation  of  part  to  part, 
especially  under  13,  i,  is  by  no  means  so  clear  as  in  the 
first  column. 

For  refutation  there  is  a  special  rule.  The  argument 
of  the  opponent,  which  contradicts  the  proposition,  is 
first  stated  under  a  series  of  heads  distinguished  by  the 
prime  (')  marks,  I',  A',  i',  etc.;  and  it  is  then  answered 
in  another  series, which  supports  the  proposition  and  fol- 
lows the  regular  notation.  Thus  on  page  210  A'  docs 
not  support  I  but  attacks  it ;  and  A,  which  answers  A', 
is  the  supporting  argument.  The  arrangement  is  sub- 
stantially equivalent  to  such  a  form  as  the  following: 

Proposition:  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished ;  for 
I.   Humanity  demands  it;  for 

A.  The  argument  that  we  should   obey  the   Old  Testa- 
ment law  of  a  life  for  a  life  is  untenable;  for 
i.   It  has  in  it  the  notion  of  vengeance. 


ARGUMENTATTON  221 

The  opposing  arguments  and  the  refutation  on  pages 
213  and  214  are  displayed  in  the  same  way.  The  argu- 
ments of  the  other  side  are  respectively  C,  V,  a',  1',  and 
A',  i' ;  and  the  replies,  maintaining  the  proposition,  are 
C,  i,  a,  1,  and  A,  i. 

To  sum  up :  heads  and  subheads  of  both  introduction 
and  brief  proper  form,  when  taken  together,  complete 
sentences.  In  the  brief  proper  the  connective  between 
leading  and  subordinate  heads  is  either  for  or  because; 
that  is,  each  subhead  must  read  as  a  reason  in  support 
of  the  head  which  leads  it.  Should  hence  or  therefore 
be  the  connective  needed  to  make  sense,  the  leading  and 
subordinate  heads  have  been  transposed.  The  headings 
should  be  uniform,  so  that  each  new  set  marks  an  argu- 
ment removed  a  step  farther  from  the  proposition.  The 
headings  must  not  be  crowded  and  confused  by  running 
two  or  more  arguments  into  one.  In  refutation  the  prime 
marks  distinguish  the  arguments  of  the  opposing  side, 
while  the  heads  which  answer  them  and  support  the  prop- 
osition, follow  the  regular  notation. 

40.  Proportion  in  Argumentation. — The  suggestions  as 
to  proportion  in  narration,  description,  and  exposition 
are  generally  applicable  to  argumentation.  The  only 
important  point  not  treated  in  the  preceding  chapters 
has  been  brought  out  in  the  discussion  of  evidence,  in 
the  course  of  which  it  has  been  shown  that  the  cogency 
of  any  particular  argument  determines  its  share  of  the 
space.  For  instance,  in  The  AboUtion  of  Capital  Pun- 
ishment, page  156,  the  protection  of  society,  which  to 
the  ordinary  reader  is  the  vital  matter,  is  elaborated  most 
fully.  Occasionally  a  minor  argument  is  so  intricate  that 
it  cannot  be  clearly  set  forth  in  few  words  ;  but  in  the  main 
there  must  be  a  constant  ratio  between  value  and  space. 


222  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

41,  Clearness  in  Argumentation. — All  the  devices  which 
contribute  toward  clearness  in  exposition — diagrams  of 
complicated  structures,  apt  comparisons,  and  concrete  in- 
stances— are  equally  useful  in  argumentation,  useful  to 
explain  but  not  always  to  convince.  If  the  course  of 
reasoning  be  long  and  involved,  a  brief  summary  here 
and  tliere  may  give  the  reader  his  bearings,  save  him 
the  trouble  of  running  back  and  picking  up  his  threads. 
Thus  Burke  in  his  Speech  on  Conciliation,  before  enter- 
ing upon  a  new  argument,  now  and  then  summarizes  the 
points  which  he  has  just  proved,  as  in  the  following 
passages : 

Then,  sir,  from  these  six  capital  sources:  of  descent,  of 
form  of  government,  of  reHgioii  in  the  northern  provinces, 
of  manners  in  the  southern,  of  education,  of  the  remote- 
ness of  situation  from  the  first  mover  of  government — from 
all  these  causes  a  fierce  spirit  of  liberty  has  grown  up. 
It  has  grown  with  the  growth  of  the  people  in  your  colo- 
nies, and  increased  witli  tlie  increase  of  their  wealth:  a 
spirit,  that  unhappily  meeting  with  an  exercise  of  power 
in  K,ngland,  wliich,  however  lawful,  is  not  reconcilable  to 
any  ideas  of  liberty,  much  less  with  theirs,  lias  kindled 
the  flame  that  is  ready  to  consume  us. 

If,  then,  the  removal  of  the  causes ,  of  this  spirit  of 
American  liberty  be  for  the  greater  part,  or  rather  en- 
tirely, impracticable;  if  the  ideas  of  criminal  process  be 
inai)"plieable,  or  if  applicable,  are  in  the  highest  degree 
int'X]Kdient ;  what  way  yet  remains? 

42.  Interest  in  Argumentation. — In  argumentation,  as 
in  all  writing,  interest  is  secured  by  cutting  out  dry 
details  and,  when  the  subject  permits,  by  dealing  in  per- 
sonal sensations  and  appealing  to  emotion. 

43.  Persuasiveness  in  Argumentation. — Argumentation, 
unhke  exposition,  should  be  .something  more  than  clear 


ARGUMENTATION  223 

and  interesting;  it  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  convinc- 
ing. An  argument  to  prove  that  there  are  canals  on 
Mars  or  that  the  horse  is  a  product  of  evolution  may, 
as  far  as  it  goes,  be  both  lucid  and  entertaining;  but  if 
the  logical  chain  be  incomplete,  so  that  the  reader  still 
believes  that  Mars  has  no  canals  or  that  the  horse  is  not 
evolved,  all  the  clearness  and  interest  are  wasted.  The 
argument  which  has  failed  to  convince  has  failed  in  the 
essential  thing.  This  matter  of  logical  completeness  has, 
however,  been  discussed  at  length  under  unity. 

The  argument  about  the  canals  serves  its  purpose  if 
convincing ;  for  people  who  think  Mars  has  canals  behave 
no  differently  from  people  who  scout  the  theory.  Canals 
on  Mars  are  not  necessary  to  human  welfare  or  the  salva- 
tion of  our  country.  But  people  who  believe  in  tariff 
reform  may,  if  they  live  up  to  their  creed,  behave  very 
differently  from  those  who  hold  a  contrary  opinion.  Un- 
fortunately "to  know  is  one  thing,  to  do  is  another;" 
"the  consciousness  of  a  duty  is  not  all  one  with  the  per- 
formance of  it;"  and  therefore  the  argument  on  tariff 
reform  aims  not  only  to  convince,  but,  what  is  more,  to 
persuade  to  action.  The  campaign  orator  strives  to  make 
his  hearers  both  believe  in  his  party  and  go  further,  that 
is,  vote  and  work  for  it.  Plenty  of  men  who  are  con- 
vinced that  the  church  is  a  worthy  institution  do  not 
care  enough  about  it  to  sacrifice  time,  energy,  or  money 
in  order  to  attend ;  and  the  task  of  the  clergyman,  in 
converting  these  indifferent  believers,  is  to  make  them 
care.  In  fine,  arguments  on  subjects  vitally  connected 
with  conduct  must,  in  addition  to  being  convincing, 
have  a  second  quality,  persuasiveness.  In  this  process 
of  persuading,  a  cold  mathematical  demonstration,  how- 


224  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

ever  flawless  the  logic,  is  unavailing,  because  it  docs  not 
touch  the  sympathy  and  move  the  will.  The  desired 
quality,  the  successful  appeal  to  emotion,  is  shown  in 
Wood's  Coinage,  page  150,  wliich  closes  with  an  exhor- 
tation to  "refuse  this  filthy  trash;"  in  The  Abolition 
of  Capital  Punishment,  156,  which  protests  against 
the  inhumanity  of  executions;  and  in  the  following 
extracts : 

I  am  unconcerned  at  the  rage  and  clamor  of  party  men; 
but  I  cannot  be  unconcerned  to  hear  men  wlio,  I  think,  are 
good  men  and  good  Christians  prepossessed  and  mistaken 
about  me.  However,  I  cannot  doubt  but  some  time  or  other 
it  will  please  God  to  open  such  men's  eyes.  A  constant, 
steady  adhering  to  personal  virtue  and  to  public  peace, 
wliich,  I  thank  God,  I  can  appeal  to  Him  lias  always  been 
my  practice,  will  at  last  restore  me  to  the  opinion  of  sober 
and  imjiartial  men,  and  that  is  all  I  desire.  What  it  will 
do  with  tliose  wlio  are  resolutely  partial  and  unjust,  I 
cannot  say,  neitlur  is  that  mucli  my  concern.  But  I  can- 
not forbear  giving  one  example  of  the  hard  treatment  I 
receive,  which  has  happened  even  while  I  am  writing  this 
tract. 

I  have  six  children;  I  have  educated  them  as  well  as 
my  circumstances  will  permit,  and  so  as  I  hope  shall  rec- 
ommend them  to  better  usage  than  their  father  meets  witli 
in  this  world.  I  am  not  indebted  one  shilling  in  the  world 
for  any  part  of  their  education  or  for  .anything  else  be- 
longing to  their  bringing  up;  yet  the  author  of  the  Flying 
Post  published  lately  that  I  had  never  paid  for  tlie  edu- 
cation of  any  of  my  children.  If  any  man  in  Britain  has 
a  sliilling  to  demand  of  me  for  any  part  of  their  education 
or  anything  belonging  to  them,  let  them  come  for  it. — 
Daniel  Defoe  in  An  Appeal  to  Honor  and  Justice. 

Alas !  for  poor  Dick  Steele !  For  nobody  else,  of  course. 
There  is  no  man  or  woman  in  o?/r  time  who  makes  fine  proj- 
ects and  gives  them  up  from  idleness  or  want  of  means. 
When  Duty  calls  upon  us,  we  no  doubt  are  alwayy  at  home 


AEGUMEKTATION"  225 

and  willing  to  pay  that  grim  tax-gatherer.  When  we  are 
stricken  with  remorse  and  promise  reform,  we  keep  our 
promise,  and  are  never  angry  or  idle  or  extravagant  any 
more.  There  are  no  chambers  in  our  hearts,  destined  for 
family  friends  and  affections,  and  now  occupied  by  some 
Sin's  emissary  and  bailiff  in  possession.  There  are  no 
little  sins,  shabby  peccadilloes,  importunate  remembrances, 
or  disappointed  holders  of  our  promises  to  reform,  hover- 
ing at  our  steps  or  knocking  at  our  door !  Of  course  not. 
We  are  living  in  the  nineteenth  century;  and  poor  Dick 
Steele  stumbled  and  got  up  again,  and  got  into  jail  and  out 
again,  and  sinned  and  rej^ented,  and  loved  and  suffered,  and 
lived  and  died,  scores  of  years  ago.  Peace  be  with  him ! 
Let  us  think  gently  of  one  who  was  so  gentle;  let  us  speak 
kindly  of  one  whose  own  breast  exuberated  with  human 
kindness. — William  Makepeace  Thackeray  in  The  Eng- 
lish Humorists. 

What  a  scene  must  a  field  of  battle  present,  where  thou- 
sands are  left  without  assistance  and  without  pity,  with 
their  wounds  exposed  to  the  piercing  air,  while  the  blood, 
freezing  as  it  flows,  binds  them  to  the  earth,  amidst  the 
trampling  of  horses  and  the  insults  of  an  enraged  foe !  If 
they  are  spared  by  the  humanity  of  the  enemy  and  carried 
from  the  field,  it  is  but  a  prolongation  of  torment.  Con- 
veyed in  uneasy  vehicles,  often  to  a  remote  distance, 
through  roads  almost  impassable,  they  are  lodged  in  ill- 
prepared  receptacles  for  the  wounded  and  the  sick,  where 
the  variety  of  distress  baffles  all  the  efforts  of  humanity 
and  skill,  and  renders  it  impossible  to  give  to  each  the 
attention  he  demands.  Far  from  their  native  home,  no 
tender  assiduities  of  friendship,  no  well-known  voice,  no 
wife  or  mother  or  sister,  is  near  to  soothe  their  sorrows, 
relieve  their  thirst,  or  close  their  eyes  in  death. — Robert 
Hall  in  Reflections  on  War. 

Though  it  may  take  the  language  of  prayer,  it  is  blas- 
phemy that  attributes  to  the  inscrutable  decrees  of  Provi- 
dence the  suffering  and  brutishness  that  come  of  poverty ; 
that  turns  with  folded  hands  to  the  All-Father  and  lays 
on  him  the  responsibility  for  the  want  and  crime  of  our 
great   cities.     We    degrade   the    Everlasting.     We    slander 


226  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

the  Just  One.  A  merciful  man  would  have  better  ordered 
the  world;  a  just  man  would  crush  with  his  foot  such  an 
ulcerous  ant-hill !  It  is  not  the  Almighty  but  we  who  are 
respoiisible  for  the  vice  and  misery  that  fester  amid  our 
civilization.  The  Creator  showers  upon  us  his  gifts — more 
than  enough  for  all.  But  like  swine  scrambling  for  food, 
we  tread  them  in  the  mire — tread  them  in  the  mire  while 
we  tear  and  rend  each  other! — Henry  George  in  Progress 
and  Poverty. 

The  most  persuasive  appeals  are  to  such  elementary 
feelings  as  desire  of  life,  self-interest,  the  sense  of  per- 
sonal honor,  family  affection,  patriotism,  admiration  of 
heroism,  generosity,  mercy,  hatred  of  oppression,  and 
love  of  justice.  Attempts  to  rouse  these  sentiments  must, 
however,  be  few,  or  they  lose  force ;  they  must  be  re- 
strained, or  the}'  cross  the  line  into  rant  or  gush  ;  they 
must  be  based  upon  reason,  or  they  degenerate  jnto  a 
cheap  and  empty  play  upon  passion  or  prejudice.  The 
perfect  argument  is  thus  the  union  of  persuasiveness  with 
rigid  logic. 

44.  Debate. — Practically  everything  that  has  been 
said  about  written  argumentation  applies  also  to  spoken 
debate.  The  chief  difference  is  that  in  debate  the  ma- 
terial of  each  side  nmst  be  divided  equally  between  two 
or  more  speakers,  whose  time  is  strictly  limited.  This 
division  necessitates  changes  from  the  normal  order  and 
proportion. 

The  exposition  of  the  question  naturally  falls  to  the 
first  speaker.  After  he  has  said  whatever  be  necessary 
as  to  origin  of  the  question  and  definition  of  terms,  he 
should  generally  set  forth  briefly  but  explicitly  the  issue 
and  the  plan  of  his  side.  To  be  sure,  he  thus  at  the 
outset  reveals  to  his  o})poncnts  his  line  of  attack ;  but 


ARGUMENTATION  227 

this  is  a  secret  hardly  worth  keeping.  What  he  may 
lose  by  putting  his  rivals  on  their  guard,  he  may  more 
than  gain  by  enabling  his  listeners  to  follow  him  easily. 

To  quibble  over  definitions  or  to  juggle  with  the 
statement  of  issue  makes  an  unhappy  impression  on  an 
audience,  which  is  mainly  interested  in  a  strong  pres- 
entation of  evidence.  In  order  to  avoid  fruitless  dis- 
pute over  words  and  to  get  at  the  heart  of  the  question 
quickly,  contestants  frequently  agree  on  a  definition  of 
terms,  to  be  printed  on  the  programme  or  announced 
by  the  presiding  officer.  Sometimes  they  also  agree  on 
a  short  review  of  the  origin  of  the  question  and  a  state- 
ment of  the  issue.  With  these  preliminaries  disposed 
of,  the  debaters  can  devote  themselves  wholly  to  the 
argument  proper. 

When  the  argument  is  first  drafted,  the  chances  are 
that  the  material  does  not  divide  itself  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  there  are  speakers.  Suppose  that  there 
are  three  speakers,  that  the  subject  is  The  Abolition  of 
Capital  Punishment,  156,  and  that  the  two  introduc- 
tory paragraphs  are  agreed  to  by  both  sides.  The 
divisions  would  come  at  the  ends  of  paragi'aphs  4  and 
7,  and  would  cut  across  the  arguments  on  injustice  and 
protection  of  society.  In  the  first  section  this  difficulty 
can  be  evaded  in  two  ways :  one  is  to  compress  the  argu- 
ment on  injustice  into  the  allotted  space;  another  is  to 
assign  the  first  speaker  nothing  but  the  argument  on 
injustice,  and  to  pass  over  to  the  second  speaker  the 
short  argument  on  inhumanity.  The  long  argument 
on  protection  of  society  will  have  to  be  divided  between 
the  second  and  third  speakers.  The  second  might  con- 
sider the  experience  of  foreign  countries ;  the  third,  of 


228  ENGLISU   COMPOSITION 

the  United  States.  Nearly  every  debate  requires  simi- 
lar adjustments  to  suit  the  taste  and  ability  and  fill 
out  the  time  of  the  several  speakers. 

Some  of  these  adjustments  can  be  planned  in  ad- 
vance, others  nnist  be  made  as  the  debate  proceeds.  If 
the  affirmative  has  but  a  feeble  argument  on  a  point 
which  the  negative  is  prepared  to  defend  stoutly,  the 
latter  may  to  advantage  say  somewhat  less  on  this  and 
expend  time  and  energy  on  points  which  the  affirmative 
is  treating  more  fully.  'I'luis  each  side  must  be  con- 
stantly reshaping  its  material  so  as  to  offer  the  most 
formidable  front  to  the  opponent. 

Such  shifts  will  be  impossible  if  the  argument  be 
connuittcd  to  memory  and  delivered  in  set  speeches. 
The  better  method  is  to  master  the  brief  thoroughly, 
to  know  all  the  evidence,  and  to  practise  improinj)tu 
phrasing.  By  this  means  a  speaker  may  bring  forward 
under  any  one  head  as  much  evidence  as  he  chooses:  only 
his  more  import^mt  facts  if  these  will  demolish  the  ad- 
versary ;  everything  he  can  muster  if  he  be  hard  pressed. 

Each  speaker  should  also  be  as  familiar  with  the 
whole  argument  as  with  his  particular  share  of  it.  In 
an  emergency  he  must  be  able  to  take  up  points  which 
his  colleagues  intended  to  discuss  but  which  they  are 
forced  to  pass  over. 

At  the  beginning  and  end  of  cicli  speech  a  few  words 
of  summary  will  remind  the  audience  how  far  the  argu- 
ment has  progressed,  and  how  the  speaker's  side  is  main- 
taining its  position.  The  following  is  an  example  of 
an  effective  beginning  for  a  second  speaker: 

Our  opponents  want  senators  elected  by  direct  popular 
vote  on  the  ground  that  the  people  desire  the  change,  and 


ARGUMENTATION'  229 

that  it  would  improve  the  character  of  the  Senate,  and  leave 
the  legislatures  free  for  their  ordinary  work.  The  first  of 
these  theories  my  colleague  has  already  overthrown ;  the 
second  my  colleague  who  follows  will  discuss ;  and  the  third 
I  shall  immediately  analyze. 

The  same  speech  might  end  thus : 

Two  of  the  arguments  of  the  other  side — relating  to 
popular  desire  and  the  routine  work  of  the  legislature — we 
have  now  answered ;  the  third  we  leave  to  our  next  speaker. 
We  have  also  proved  that  because  the  present  system  fulfils 
the  purpose  of  the  founders  of  the  Republic,  and  because  a 
change  would  disturb  our  whole  scheme  of  constitutional 
government,  we  should  rest  content. 

The  rebuttal,  after  the  principal  speeches,  should  be 
confined  to  important  points.  It  is  easy  to  amuse  an 
audience  by  dwelling  on  small  mistakes  of  fact  and  in- 
felicities of  expression.  Such  triviality,  however,  such 
a  wandering  from  the  logical  path,  wastes  precious 
time,  which  should  be  spent  in  exposing  only  vital 
errors  of  an  opponent  and  in  fortifying  one's  own  main 
arguments. 

The  substance  of  all  these  suggestions  is  that  a  de- 
bate shall  be  a  debate  and  not  a  succession  of  declama- 
tions. Each  speaker  should  avoid  assertion,  and  should 
be  clear,  interesting,  and  persuasive.  He  must  also  con- 
trol his  temper  and  be  always  courteous.  Without  such 
self-possession  he  cannot  readily  amplify  or  condense 
his  material  or  turn  his  phrases  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  the  contest;  he  cannot  discriminate  between  the  su- 
perficial and  the  serious  blunders  of  his  opponents,  and 
hold  a  steady  course  to  his  own  conclusion. 


230  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES 

1.  Mention  at  least  two  different  types  of  argumentation. 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  material  for  argumentation  ? 

3.  Give  a  list  of  five  questions  for  argumentation. 

4.  Write  an  argument  of  from  500  to  1,000  words  on  one  of  your 
questions  or  on  one  of  the  following  : 

Should  inter.scholastic  football  be  abolished? 

Should  secret  societies  in  public  high-schools  be  for- 
bidden? 

Should   written    term   examinations   be   abolished  ? 

Should  manual  training  be  included  in  a  high-school 
course  ? 

Should  high-schools  be  maintained  at  jjublic  expense? 

Should  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  be  pro- 
hibited from  working  in  factories  ? 

Should  arbitration  of  disputes  between  employer  and 
employees  be  comj)ulsory  ? 

Should  party  lines  be  drawn   in  municipal  elections? 

Should  all  executive  duties  in  American  cities  be  con- 
centrated in  a  mayor,  who  has  absolute  power  to  appoint 
and  remove  all  subordinate  officials? 

Should  New  York  City  own  and  operate  its  public  light- 
ing plant? 

Has   prohibition  been   successful   in    Maine  ? 

Should  the  plan  of  the  Swiss  referendum  be  adopted  in 
this  state? 

Should  there  be  an  educational  qualification  for  voters 
in  this  state? 

Should  there  be  a  property  qualification  for  voters  in 
this  state? 

Is  woman  suffrage  desirable  in  this  state? 

Should  church  property  be  exempt  from  taxation  in  this 
state  ? 

Would  a  single  tax  on  land  be  better  than  the  present 
system  of  state  taxation  ? 

Should  the  Constitution  be  amended  so  that  United 
States  senators  may  be  elected  by  a  direct  vote  of  the 
people  ? 

Should  the  President  be  allowed  to  veto  items  in  ap- 
propriation  bills? 


ARGUMENTATIOK  '    •         '      231 

Should  the  federal  government  interfere  to  protect  the 
negro  in  the  right  of  suffrage? 

Should  the  federal  government  have  power  to  fix  railway 
rates  ? 

Should   the   government  own   and  operate  the   railways  ? 

Should  the  government  own  and  operate  all  telegraph 
lines  ? 

Should  the  navy  be  reduced  in  size? 

Does  government  seed  distribution  pay? 

Is  direct  nomination  for  office  by  vote  of  the  party  su- 
perior to  the  system  of  caucus  and  convention? 

Should  the  jury  system  be  abolished? 

Should  the  tariff  be  reduced? 

Should  raw  materials  be  admitted  duty  free? 

Should  sugar  be  admitted  free  of  duty  ? 

Should  foreign-built  ships  be  admitted  to  American  reg- 
istry free  of  duty? 

Should  the  United  States  establish  a  system  of  shipping 
subsidies  ? 

Does  a  high  tariff  raise  wages  ? 

Should  Chinese  laborers  be  excluded  from  the  United 
States  ? 

Are  the  Philippines  fit  for  such  independence  as  Cuba 
enjoys? 

Should  Canada  be  annexed  to  the  United  States  ? 

Was  the  execution  of  Major  Andre  justifiable? 

Did  Burr  aim  at  an  independent  empire? 

Was  the  Mexican  war  justifiable? 

Is  vivisection  justifiable? 

Are  earthquakes  caused  by  the  cooling  and  contraction 
of  the  earth's  crust? 

Is  there  a  sea-serpent? 

Shall  cremation  supersede  burial? 

5.  What  is  the  first  step  toward  securing  unity  in  an  argument  ? 

6.  Name  some  of  the  important  sources  of  information  in  regard 
to  public  questions. 

7.  What  is  the  second  step  toward  securing  unity? 

8.  What  results  may  be  obtained  by  a  thorough  analysis  of  all 
the  facts  relating  to  a  subject  ? 

9.  What  is  the  beginning  of  analysis  ? 

10.  What  is  included  in  an  exposition  of  the  question? 


232  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

11.  What  is  the  advantage  of  examining  into  the  origin  of  a 
question? 

12.  State  briefly  the  origin  of  at  least  two  of  the  questions  in  the 
preceding  list,  and  show  what  light  a  knowledge  of  the  origin 
throws  on  the  real  issue. 

13.  What  terms  should  be  defined  ? 

14.  When  are  dictionary  definitions  useful  and  when  are  they 
valueless  ? 

15.  Point  out  five  questions  in  which  a  definition  must  be  taken 
from  the  dictionary. 

16.  Point  out  five  questions  in  which  the  definitions  should  make 
clear  not  so  much  the  broad  meaning  of  a  term  as  the  particular 
application  of  it. 

17.  What  can  you  say  about  fairness  of  definitions  ? 

18.  Define  the  terms  which  need  definition  in  any  five  questions 
of  the  preceding  list. 

19.  Point  out  the  defects  of  the  following  definitions  : 

In  discussing  the  question  whether  interschohistic  foot- 
ball should  be  abolished,  I  take  "interseholastic"  to  mean 
"between  schools";  and  "abolish,"  "to  do  away  with,  put 
an  end  to." 

In  the  question  whether  written  term  examinations 
should  be  abolished,  the  phrase  "term  examinations"  sig- 
nifies "tests  of  scholarship  at  the  end  of  the  term." 

My  question  is  whether  a  single  tax  on  land  is  better 
than  the  present  system  of  state  taxation;  and  by  that 
I  mean  the  plan  of  taxation  now  in  use  in  this  state. 

In  arguing  the  question  whether  government  seed  dis- 
tribution pays,  I  have  reference  to  the  j^resent  lavish  and 
wasteful  method  of  allowing  congressmen  to  throw  away 
tons  of  good  seeds  on  constituents  who  care  nothing  what- 
ever  for   agriculture. 

In  arguing  the  question  whether  government  seed  dis- 
tribution pays,  I  have  reference  to  the  law  under  which 
the  government,  by  distributing  choice  seeds,  is  steadily 
increasing  both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  our  crops,  to 
the  great  benefit  of  the  country. 


ARGUMENTATION"  233 

20.  "What  is  the  last  step  in  the  exposition  of  the  question? 

21.  How  does  one  find  the  issue  in  any  question? 

22.  State  the  issue  in  at  least  two  of  the  preceding  questions. 

23.  Against  what  errors  may  a  statement  of  the  issue  guard  one  ? 

24.  Point  out  a  question  in  which  there  is  danger  of  running  off 
into  a  proposition  somewhat  like  that  with  which  one  starts,  bmt 
not  quite  the  same. 

25.  What,  in  general,  are  the  results  of  an  analysis  of  evidence  ? 

26.  What  are  the  two  main  divisions  of  evidence  ? 

27.  Define  testimonial  evidence  and  give  an  example, 

28.  Define  circumstantial  evidence  and  give  an  example. 

29.  Upon  what  two  things  does  the  value  of  testimony  depend  ? 

30.  What  are  the  causes  that  impair  the  honesty  of  a  witness  ? 

31.  Give  an  example  of  testimony  that  is  of  little  value  because 
of  the  bad  character  of  the  witness. 

32.  Give  an  example  of  testimony  that  is  of  little  value  because 
the  witness  has  a  strong  motive  for  dishonesty. 

33.  Point  out  the  insufficiency  of  the  testimony  in  the  subjoined 
examples : 

In  New  York  a  man  recently  released  from  prison  at 
Sing  Sing  was  arrested  on  the  suspicion  that  he  had  com- 
mitted burglary.  He  protested  his  innocence  in  the  strong- 
est terms.  "I  have  thoroughly  reformed,"  he  asserted. 
"Since  I  left  Sing  Sing  I  have  been  working  as  a  black- 
smith to  earn  an  honest  living.  I  have  worked  hard  all 
day,  have  kept  away  from  the  saloons,  and  have  stayed 
in  my  own  house  at  night." 

'A  federal  official,  convicted  of  defrauding  the  govern- 
ment, declared: 

"I  am  innocent  of  all  that  is  charged  against  me,  and 
while  I  am  now  fettered  with  these  irons,  the  day  will  come 
when  I  shall  throw  them  off  and  the  man  who  put  me  here 
will  suffer  a  like  fate.  I  never  saw  the  color  of  one  penny 
I  am  charged  with  having  taken.  But  I  have  been  tried, 
convicted,  and  sentenced.  I  appealed  to  the  highest  tri- 
bunal, and  the  verdict  of  the  lower  court  was  sustained. 
I  can  go  no  further,  except  it  be  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  He,  I  believe,  will  see  justice  done.  I 
will  serve  my  time,  if  I  have  to  put  in  the  full  sentence, 
but  I  shall  never  have  it  said  that  I  have  shown  the  white 


234  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

feather.      I  am  innocent.      I  assert  that  again,  and  I  shall 
await  the  time  when  vindication  shall  come  my  way." 

34.  What  are  the  two  things  which  in  general  affect  the  compe- 
tence of  a  witness  ? 

35.  Give  an  example  of  testimony  that  is  of  little  value  because 
the  witness  is  dull. 

36.  Why  are  children  regarded  as  poor  witnesses  ? 

37.  Why  do  people  discredit  the  testimony  of  a  man  who  is  under 
the  influence  of  liquor,  half-stunned,  or  much  excited? 

38.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  valuable  witness  ? 

39.  What  are  the  prejudices  against  which  a  witness  must  guard  ? 

40.  Give  an  example  of  testimony  that  may  be  weakened  by  preju- 
dice in  favor  of  family  or  friends  ;  of  church  ;  of  school ;  of  political 
party;  of  country. 

41.  Point  out  the  weakness  of  the  following  pieces  of  testimony  : 

Laws  enacted  by  the  Republican  party,  which  the  Demo- 
cratic party  failed  to  enforce,  and  which  were  intended  for 
the  protection  of  the  public  against  the  imjust  discrimi- 
nation or  the  illegal  encroachment  of  vast  aggregations  of 
capital,  have  been  fearlessly  enforced  by  a  Republican 
president;  and  new  laws,  insuring  reasonable  publicity 
as  to  the  operations  of  great  corporations,  and  providing 
additional  remedies  for  the  prevention  of  discrimination 
in  freight  rates,  have  been  passed  by  a  Republican  con- 
gress.— Platform  of  the  Republican  National  Convention 
of  1904. 

We  recognize  that  the  gigantic  trusts  and  combinations, 
designed  to  enable  capital  to  secure  more  than  its  just 
share  of  the  joint  products  of  capital  and  labor,  and  which 
have  been  fostered  and  promoted  imder  Republican  rule, 
are  a  menace  to  beneficial  com)ietition  and  an  obstacle  to 
permanent  business  prosperity. — Platform  of  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention   of   1904. 

42.  Explain  the  value  of  expert  testimony. 

43.  Give  an  example  of  expert  testimony. 

44.  Give  an  example  of  inexpert  testimony  on  a  point  where  ex- 
pert testimony  is  needed. 

45.  Point  out  the  defect  of  the  following  testimony  : 


AKGUMENTATION  235 

Sir:  I  am  a  blacksmith  in  the  town  of  Catskill,  New 
York.  While  overheated  at  my  forge,  I  was  exposed  to 
a  draft  and  was  taken  down  with  inflammatory  rheumatism. 
For  three  weeks  the  doctors  were  unable  to  relieve  me,  but 
two  bottles  of  your  liniment  eff"ected  a  cure.  I  am  urging 
all  my  neighbors  to  try  it. 

Yours  gratefully, 

John  Smith. 

46.  What  is  the  object  of  a  cross-examination  in  court  ? 

47.  What  process  of  sifting  and  testing  documentary  evidence 
corresponds  roughly  to  cross-examination  ? 

48.  Mention  some  authority  in  science  whose  work  has  been 
scrutinized  and  finally  accepted  by  other  experts  in  the  same  field. 

49.  What  is  the  relative  trustworthiness  of  newspapers,  maga- 
zines, and  books  ? 

50.  What  kind  of  books  are  recognized  as  most  authoritative? 

51.  What  is  assertion  ? 

52.  Give  ten  examples  of  it  from  your  personal  experience. 

53.  Show  how  these  assertions  might  possibly  have  been  sup- 
ported by  convincing  evidence. 

54.  What  is  the  rule  about  citing  references  to  authorities  ? 

55.  Summarize  what  is  said  about  testimonial  evidence. 

56.  When  is  circumstantial  evidence  convincing  ? 

57.  Give  three  examples  of  convincing  circumstantial  evidence ; 
three  of  unconvincing. 

58.  What  are  the  three  types  of  inference  under  which  circum- 
stantial evidence  is  discussed  ? 

59.  What  are  the  most  palpable  fallacies  ? 

60.  Give  two  examples  of  fallacies  arising  from  confused  defini- 
tions. 

61.  Give  two  examples  of  the  fallacy  of  invented  example. 

62.  Give  two  examples  of  false  analogy. 

63.  Give  two  examples  of  the  fallacy  of  mistaking  sequence  in 
time  for  cause  and  effect. 

64.  Point  out  the  logical  weakness  of  the  following  inferences  : 

The  question  has  arisen  whether  the  Home  for  the  Aged 
in  this  city  should  be  supported  by  an  appropriation  from 
the  state  government  or  left  to  depend  upon  private  char- 
ity. The  home,  as  all  writers  agree,  is  the  foundation  of 
the  state;  and  the  object  of  many  of  our  most  beneficent 
laws  is  to  preserve  the  sanctity  of  home  life.     That  de- 


236  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

stroyed,  the  republic  must  pcrisli.  What  visions  of  happi- 
ness does  the  word  home  suggest!  The  tender  p.irents, 
the  affectionate  children,  the  happy  fireside,  the  nursery 
of  intelligence  and  virtue ! 

"  Home,  home,  sweet,  sweet  home. 
Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home." 

If,  then,  the  home  is  the  basis  on  which  the  state  itself 
rests,  no  one  can  deny  that  the  state  should  do  everytliing 
in  its  power  not  only  for  the  home  in  general  but  for  the 
Home  for  the  Aged  in  particular.  Charity  covers  a  mul- 
titude of  sins,  but  it  ought  not  to  cover  the  sin  of  refusing 
state  aid  to  this  deserving  institution. 

People  who  object  to  allowing  children  under  fourteen 
to  work  in  factories  forget  that  an  early  start  in  business 
is  one  of  the  essentials  to  success.  The  man  who  learns 
liabitsof  industry  when  young  is  the  one  who  succeeds. 
We  can  easily  imagine  a  boy  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  the 
mainstay  of  a  widowed  mother,  earning  regular  wages, 
acquiring  skill,  and  rising  step  by  step  till  he  becomes 
owner  of  the  factory.  A  system  by  which  boys  of  twelve 
support  their  mothers,  save  money,  and  finally  become 
masters  of  handsome  properties  is  too  beneficent  to  be 
abolished  by  law. 

One  of  the  political  reforms  which  is  often  proposed 
is  to  make  the  President  of  the  United  States  ineligible  for 
re-election.  In  order  to  prevent  his  working  for  renomi- 
nation  and  re-election,  some  people  would  limit  him  to  one 
term.  The  difficulty  is  that  he  needs  four  years  in  which 
to  master  his  duties,  and  just  when  he  begins  to  be  of  the 
highest  usefulness,  he  ought  not  to  be  turned  out.  In  a 
matter  like  this  we  must  apply  the  great  principle  that  a 
rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

He  dug  up  a  fairy-mount  against  my  advice,  and  had 
no  luck  afterward.  Though  a  learned  man  in  the  law, 
he  was  a  little  too  incredulous  in  other  matters.  I  warned 
him  that  I  heard  the  very  Banshee  that  my  grandfather 
heard  before  I  was  born  long,  under  St.  Patrick's  window 
a  few  days  before  his  death. — Maria  Eugkworth  in  Castle 
JRackrent. 


ARGUMENTATION"  237 

65.  Mention  five  types  of  doubtful  inferences. 

66.  Give  an  example  of  an  inference  that  is  doubtful  because  the 
evidence  is  conflicting. 

67.  Give  an  example  of  an  inference  that  is  doubtful  because  the 
evidence  is  ambiguous. 

68.  Give  an  example  of  the  argument  from  example. 

69.  How  may  an  argument  from  example  be  made  convincing  ? 

70.  What  is  generalization  ? 

71.  Give  an  example  of  it. 

72.  When  are  generalizations  of  doubtful  value? 

73.  Give  an  example  of  a  sound  generalization. 

74.  Give  an  example  of  an  argument  that  applies  a  general  princi- 
ple to  a  particular  case. 

75.  What  is  the  danger  of  arguing  from  general  principles? 

76.  Show  why  the  following  arguments  are  not  wholly  convincing  : 

Let  the  American  people,  as  they  thumb  over  this  ex- 
quisite March  number  of  Everybody's,  ponder  what  Rus- 
sell's and  my  work  means.     .     .     . 

Four  months  after  "Frenzied  Finance"  was  introduced 
into  American  homes  three  leading  insurance  companies 
were  discharging  their  agents  in  bunches,  and  the  aggre- 
gate business  of  the  three  was  falling  off  at  the  rate  of 
$4.,500,000  a  week. 

After  five  months  a  single  blast  of  truth  from  one  man 
shook  Wall  Street  to  its  foundations,  and  over  $200,000,- 
000  of  what  the  people  have  been  taught  to  believe  was  real 
value  ran  off  into  the  gutter  in  the  form  of  dirty  water. 

The  people  who  say  that  athletic  victories  do  not  in- 
crease the  attendance  at  a  school  are  mistaken.  In  the 
last  six  years  we  have  beaten  our  rival  in  football  four 
times;  and  in  that  period  the  number  of  students  here 
has  increased  from  243  to  307. 

The  argument  for  the  adoption  of  the  referendum  in 
this  country  is  short  and  conclusive.  The  plan  has  been 
tried  in  Switzerland  and  has  worked  well  for  a  number 
of  years.      It  must  therefore  work  well  here. 

For  the  first  time  I  took  the  half  past  nine  train  to  town 
this  morning.  It  was  twenty  minutes  late  and  I  missed 
an  important  engagement.  I  shall  never  dare  take  that 
train  again. 


238  ENGLISH    COMl'OSITION 

Tlie  eight  o'clock  train   is   always  on  time,  and   if   you 
take  it  you  are  sure  not  to  miss  an  engagement. 

77.  What  inferences  are  indubitably  sound  ? 

78.  Give  an  example  of  one. 

79.  What  is  the  value  of  several  pieces  of  evidence  tending  to  the 
8ame  conclusion  ? 

80.  Give  an  example. 

81.  Summarize  the  principles  that  guide  one  in  weighing  circum- 
stantial evidence. 

82.  Give  an  example  of  an  argument  that  is  incomplete  because  it 
merely  states  objections. 

83.  What  are  the  general  suggestions  for  order  in  argumentation  ? 

84.  Why  is  the  division  of  matter  into  direct  proof  and  refutation 
often  unwise  ? 

85.  What  are  two  main  divisions  of  a  brief  ? 

86.  Why  is  it  desirable  that  the  heads  and  subheads,  taken  to- 
gether, should  form  sentences  instead  of  mere  phrases  ? 

87.  Point  out  the  defect  of  the  following  brief  of  an  introduction : 

QUESTION 

Should  fewer  studies  be  taught  in  the  high-school? 

INTRODUCTION 

I.   Studies  now  taught. 
II.   Proposed  reduction  of  curriculum. 
III.   Points    involved: 

A.  Cost  of  maintaining  scliool. 

B.  Effect    of    teaching    fewer    subjects    more    thor- 
oughly. 

88.  In  the  brief  proper  what  are  the  right  connectives  between 
main  and  subordinate  heads  ? 

89.  What  arguments  do  the  main  heads  contain? 

90.  What  arguments  does  the  next  set  of  heads  contain  ? 

91.  Point  out  the  errors  in  the  following  section  of  a  brief: 

I.   Raising   the   revenue    and    supporting    the    army   and 
navy  are  matters  not  so  much  of  laws  as  of  loyalty; 
A.   Hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  same  principle 
a])plies  to  the  maintenance  of  the  empire; 


ARGUMENTATION  339 

i.  And  therefore  England  will  be  best  served  by 
winning  the  loyalty  and  affection  of  her  colo- 
nies. 

92.  What  are  the  tests  for  determining  whether  the  leading  and 
subordinate  heads  of  a  brief  are  in  proper  order  ? 

93.  What  is  the  rule  for  uniformity  of  headings  ? 

94.  What  is  the  effect  of  crowding  two  or  more  arguments  into 
one  head? 

95.  What  is  the  special  rule  for  marking  refutation  ? 

96.  Give  an  example  of  refutation  in  brief  form. 

97.  Draw  a  brief  of  Folly  of  Using  Force  with  the  Colonies,  page 
152. 

98.  Draw  briefs  of  all  the  arguments  which  you  write. 

99.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  proportion  in  argumentation? 
100.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  clearness  in  argumentation? 
loi.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  interest  in  argumentation  ? 

102.  What   qualities  should   an   argument   have   in   addition  to 
clearness  and  interest  ? 

103.  What  is  necessary  to  make  an  argument  convincing? 

104.  What  kind  of  subject  requires  a  persuasive  argument  ? 

105.  Give  two  examples. 

106.  What  makes  an  argument  persuasive  ? 

107.  Give  two  examples. 

108.  To  what  emotions  are  the  most  persuasive  appeals  addressed? 

109.  Give  examples  either  from  books  or  papers  or  from  your  own 
reading. 

no.  What  are  the  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  trying  to  make  an  ar- 
gument persuasive  ? 

in.  What  are  the  principal  suggestions  for  debate  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PARAGRAPH 

45.  Definition  of  the  Paragraph. — A  paragraph  *is  a 
group  of  closely  related  sentences ;  and  paragraph  divis- 
ions, like  punctuation  marks,  help  the  reader  by  indicat- 
ing the  change  from  one  group  to  another.  A  short 
narrative,  description,  exposition,  or  argument  may  con- 
sist of  a  single  paragraph,  but  in  a  longer  theme  each 
phase  of  the  subject  occupies  a  paragraph  by  itself. 
This  paragraph  must,  like  the  whole  composition,  obey 
the  laws  of  unity,  order,  and  proportion. 

46.  Unity  of  the  Paragraph. — The  division  of  matter 
into  paragraphs  that  arc  units  depends  less  upon  strict 
rule  than  upon  the  judgment.  A  unitary  paragraph 
in  narration  contains  an  important  incident  or  group 
of  related  incidents ;  in  description,  an  important  feature 
or  group  of  related  features ;  in  exposition  and  argu- 
mentation, an  important  idea  or  group  of  related  ideas. 
In  The  Story  of  My  Life,  page  16,  the  first  paragraph 
tells  of  early  boyhood ;  the  second,  of  the  starting  of  a 
paper;  the  third,  of  its  progress;  the  fourth,  of  the 
printing  business;  and  the  fifth,  of  amateur  theatricals. 
In  The  Woods  and  the  Pacific,  73,  the  first  paragraph 
describes  the  general  situation  of  the  Bay  of  Monterey ; 
the  second,  the  beaches  ;  the  third,  the  sounds  ;  the  fourth, 
the  climate  and  the  effect  upon  it  of  forest  fires ;  and 
the  fifth,  the  effect  of  tlic  ocean  uj)on  the  climate.     In 

24Q 


THE    PARAGRAPH  241 

The  Roman  Domus,  114,  the  first  paragraph  explains 
the  difference  between  the  domus  and  other  dwelhngs ;  tlie 
second,  the  plan  of  the  domus;  the  third,  the  two  parts 
of  the  entrance,  the  vestibulum  and  the  ostium;  the 
fourth,  the  atrium;  the  fifth,  the  rooms  at  the  right  and 
the  left  of  the  atrium;  the  sixth,  the  tablinum  and  the 
adjoining  apartments;  the  seventh,  the  peristylium;  the 
eighth,  several  family  living  rooms ;  the  ninth,  the  second 
story;  the  tenth,  the  differences  between  modern  resi- 
dences and  the  domus;  and  the  eleventh,  the  charm  of 
the  domus.  In  Folly  of  Using'  Force  with  the  Colonies, 
152,  the  first  paragraph  is  introductory;  the  second 
urges  the  temporary  effect  of  force;  the  third,  its  un- 
certainty ;  the  fourth,  the  danger  of  impairing  America ; 
the  fifth,  the  lack  of  experience  with  force ;  and  the  sixth 
summarizes.  In  like  manner  the  student  may  analyze  all 
of  the  examples  and  note  how,  according  to  the  principle 
of  unity,  each  paragraph  treats  one  aspect  of  the  subject. 
There  is  one  apparent  exception  to  the  principle:  in 
dialogue  a  paragraph  is  given  to  each  speech.  Almost 
any  book  containing  dialogue  will  furnish  examples. 
The  following  passage  from  Stevenson's  Dr.  Jekyll  and 
Mr.  Hyde  is  typical: 

Mr.  Utterson  was  sitting  by  his  fireside  one  evening 
after  dinner,  when  he  was  surprised  to  receive  a  visit  from 
Poole. 

"Bless  me,  Poole,  what  brings  you  here?"  he  cried;  and 
then  taking  a  second  look  at  him,  "What  ails  you.^"  he 
added;  "is  the  doctor  ill?" 

"Mr.  Utterson,"  said  the  man,  "there  is  something 
wrong." 

"Take  a  seat,  and  here  is  a  glass  of  wine  for  you,"  said 
the  lawyer.  "Now,  take  your  time,  and  tell  me  plainly 
what  you  want." 


342  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

"You  know  the  doctor's  ways,  sir,"  replied  Poole,  "and 
how  lie  shuts  himself  up.  Well,  he's  shut  uj)  again  in  the 
cabinet;  and  I  don't  like  it,  sir — I  wish  I  may  die  if  I 
like  it.      Mr.  Utterson,  sir,  I'm  afraid." 

"Now,  my  good  man,"  said  the  lawyer,  "be  explicit. 
What  are  you  afraid  of?" 

"I've  been  afraid  for  about  a  week,"  returned  Poole, 
doggedly  disregarding  the  question,  "and  I  can  bear  it 
no  more." 

The  man's  apjiearance  amply  bore  out  his  words ;  his 
manner  was  altered  for  the  worse;  and  except  for  the  mo- 
ment when  he  had  first  announced  his  terror,  he  had  not 
once  looked  the  lawyer  in  the  face.  Even  now,  he  sat  with 
the  glass  of  wine  untasted  on  his  knee,  and  his  eyes  di- 
rected to  a  corner  of  the  floor.  "I  can  bear  it  no  more," 
he  repeated. 

"Come,"  said  the  lawyer,  "I  see  you  have  some  good 
reason,  Poole;  I  see  there  is  something  seriously  amiss. 
Try  to  tell  me  what  it  is." 

"I  think  there's  been  foul  play,"  said  Poole  hoarsely. 


The  sins  against  unity  are  putting  in  too  little  or 
too  much.  In  the  first  case  ideas  which  belong  together 
are  separated  into  two  or  more  paragraphs.  A  new 
paragraph  suggests  a  new  point,  and  makes  the  reader 
pause  for  a  moment  over  the  connection.  If  the  para- 
graph on  the  moral  qualities  of  a  naturalist,  page  128, 
be  cut  into  four,  the  reader  docs  not  so  easily  grasp  the 
close  relation  of  the  statements: 

For  his  moral  character,  he  must,  like  a  knight  of  old, 
be  first  of  all  gentle  and  courteous,  ready  and  able  to  in- 
gratiate himself  with  the  poor,  the  ignorant,  and  the  sav- 
age; not  only  because  foreign  travel  will  often  otherwise 
be  imi)Ossible,  but  because  much  valuable  local  information 
can  be  obtained  from  fishermen,  miners,  hunters,  and  till- 
ers of  the  soil. 

Next,  he  should  be  brave  and  enterprising,  aiul  witlial 
patient  and  undaunted,  not  merely  in  travel  but  in  investi- 


THE    PARAGRAPH  243 

gation;  making  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  pass  over  noth- 
ing through  laziness  or  hastiness. 

Moreover,  he  must  keep  himself  free  from  all  those 
perturbations  of  mind  which  not  only  weaken  energy,  but 
darken  and  confuse  the  inductive  faculty;  from  haste,  mel- 
ancholy, testiness,  pride,  and  all  those  passions  which  make 
men  see  only  what  they  wish  to  see. 

Of  solemn  and  scrupulous  reverence  for  truth  I  hardly 
need  to  speak,  for  it  is  the  very  essence  of  a  naturalist's 
faculty. 

Were  the  subject-matter  of  each  of  the  preceding  para- 
graphs developed  and  illustrated  at  greater  length,  four 
paragraphs  might  be  justified;  but  with  the  present  ma- 
terial they  should  be  run  into  one. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  too  much  is  put  in,  the  para- 
graph becomes  unwieldy,  and  dividing  lines  between 
groups  of  ideas  are  obscured.  The  points  which  Burke 
is  urging,  152,  do  not  sfand  out  with  enough  distinct- 
ness and  emphasis  when  several  paragi'aphs  are  fused : 

First,  sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force 
alone  is  but  temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but 
it  does  not  remove  the  necessity  of  subduing  again :  and 
a  nation  is  not  governed  which  is  perpetually  to  be  con- 
quered. My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is 
not  always  the  effect  of  force;  and  an  armament  is  not  a 
victory.  If  you  do  not  succeed,  you  are  without  resource; 
for  conciliation  failing,  force  remains ;  but  force  failing, 
no  further  hope  of  reconciliation  is  left.  Power  and  au- 
thority are  sometimes  bought  by  kindness ;  but  they  can 
never  be  begged  as  alms  by  an  impoverislied  and  defeated 
violence.  A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you  impair 
the  object  by  your  very  endeavors  to  preserve  it.  The 
thing  you  fought  for  is  not  the  thing  which  you  recover; 
but  depreciated,  sunk,  wasted,  and  consumed  in  the  con- 
test. Nothing  less  will  content  me  than  whole  America. 
I  do  not  choose  to  consume  its  strength  along  with  our  own; 
because  in  all  its  parts  it  is  the  British  strength  that  I 
consume.     1    do    not    choose    to    be    caught    by    a    foreign 


244  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

enemy  at  the  end  of  this  exhausting  conflict;  and  still  less 
in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may  escape,  but  I  can  make  no  in- 
surance against  such  an  event.  Let  me  add  that  I  do  not 
clioose  whollj'  to  break  the  American  spirit;  because  it  is 
the  spirit  that  has  made  tlie  country. 

Further  examples  of  small  and  scrappy  paragraphs 
may  be  supplied  by  cutting  any  paragraph  in  this  book 
into  two  or  three ;  and  of  large  and  unwieldy  paragraphs 
by  running  two  or  three  together. 

A  convenient  test  of  unity,  especially  in  exposition 
and  argumentation,  is,  as  Professor  Wendell  suggests 
in  his  English  Compositions  to  summarize  each  para- 
graph in  a  sentence.  A  paragraph  that  may  be  thus 
summarized,  though  possibly  too  short,  is  not  likely  to 
be  too  long.  The  application  of  this  test  to  Earth-rcorms 
and  Their  Functions,  page  113,  gives  the  following 
result : 

1.  Worms  have  played  an  important  part  in  tlie  history 
of  the  world;  for  the  whole  superficial  bed  of  vegetable 
mould  passes  through  their  bodies  in  the  course  of  every 
few  years. 

2.  They  prepare  the  ground   for  vegetation. 

3.  They  enrich  the  land  by  making  the  humus  which 
covers  it. 

4.  They  level  and  plough  the  land. 

47.  Order  in  the  Paragraph. — Most  of  the  methods  of 
ordering  material  in  the  whole  composition  apply  equally 
to  the  paragraph :  in  narration,  the  order  of  time ;  in 
description,  the  brief  outline  and  then  details  according 
to  some  regular  plan  ;  in  exposition  and  argumentation, 
the  simpler  ideas  leading  up  to  the  more  complex,  or 
else  the  progression  from  the  less  to  the  more  important 
or  interesting. 


THE   PARAGRAPH  245 

Examples  of  the  order  of  time  may  be  found  in  the 
paragraphs  in  all  the  narratives  on  pages  15  to  30.  The 
following  paragraph  is  also  a  good  model : 

It  happened  that  my  brother  and  myself  were  playing 
one  evening  in  a  sandy  lane,  in  the  neighborhood  of  this 
Pett  camp;  our  mother  was  at  a  slight  distance.  All  of 
a  sudden  a  bright  yellow  and,  to  my  infantine  eye,  beau- 
tiful and  glorious  object  made  its  appearance  at  the  top 
of  the  bank  from  between  the  thick  quickset,  and,  gliding 
down,  began  to  move  across  the  lane  to  the  other  side,  like 
a  line  of  golden  light.  Uttering  a  cry  of  pleasure,  I 
sprang  forward  and  seized  it  by  the  middle.  A  strange 
sensation  of  numbing  coldness  seemed  to  pervade  my  whole 
arm,  which  surprised  me  the  more  as  the  object  to  the  eye 
appeared  so  warm  and  sunlike.  I  did  not  drop  it,  how- 
ever, but,  holding  it  up,  looked  at  it  intently,  as  its  head 
dangled  about  a  foot  from  my  hand.  It  made  no  re- 
sistance;* I  felt  not  even  the  slightest  struggle;  but  now 
my  brother  began  to  scream  and  shriek  like  one  possessed. 
"O  mother,  mother!"  said  he,  "the  viper!  my  brother  has 
a  viper  in  his  hand!"  He  then,  like  one  frantic,  made  an 
effort  to  snatcli  the  creature  away  from  me.  The  viper 
now  hissed  amain,  and  raised  its  head,  in  which  were  eyes 
like  hot  coals,  menacing,  not  myself,  but  my  brother.  I 
dropped  my  captive,  for  1  saw  my  mother  running  toward 
me ;  and  the  reptile,  after  standing  for  a  moment  nearly 
erect,  and  still  hissing  furiously,  made  off  and  disappeared. 
The  whole  scene  is  now  before  me  as  vividly  as  if  it  oc- 
curred yesterday — the  gorgeous  viper,  my  poor  dear  fran- 
tic brother,  my  agitated  parent,  and  a  frightened  hen  cluck- 
ing under  the  bushes ;  and  yet  I  was  not  three  years  old. — 
George  Borrow  in  Lavengro. 

Paragraphs  in  which  the  order  is  that  of  description 
may  be  studied  in  the  descriptions  on  pages  68  to  76. 
The  first  paragraph  of  The  Woods  and  the  Pacific,  73, 
contains  a  brief  outline  and  then  details  according  to 
a  regular  plan.  The  third  paragraph  of  The  Cathedral 
of  Chartres,  72,  presents  objects  as  the  eye  observes  them, 


246  e:n^glisti  composition' 

in  passing  from  the  door  up  the  facade  to  tlic  gahle. 
The  following  example  also  shows  that  the  descriptive 
paragraph  may  on  a  small  scale  adopt  exactly  the  order 
of  tlie  whole  description: 

The  walls  had  evidently  in  ancient  times  hcen  hung 
with  damask;  hut  now  were  naked,  and  scrawled  over  hy 
that  class  of  aspiring  travellers  who  defile  noble  monuments 
with  their  worthless  names.  The  windows,  dismantled  and 
open  to  wind  and  weather,  looked  out  into  a  charming  little 
secluded  garden,  where  an  alabaster  fountain  sparkled 
among  roses  and  myrtles,  and  was  surrounded  by  orange 
and  citron  trees,  some  of  which  flung  their  branches  into 
the  chambers.  Beyond  these  rooms  were  two  saloons, 
longer  but  less  lofty,  looking  also  into  the  garden.  In  the 
compartments  of  the  panelled  ceilings  were  baskets  of  fruit 
and  garlands  of  flowers,  painted  by  no  mean  hand,  and  in 
tolerable  preservation.  The  walls  also  had  been  painted 
in  fresco  in  the  Italian  style,  but  the  paintings  wxre  nearly 
obliterated;  the  windows  were  in  the  same  shattered  state 
with  those  of  the  other  chambers.  This  fanciful  suite  of 
rooms  terminated  in  an  open  gallery  with  balustrades,  run- 
ning at  right  angles  along  another  side  of  the  garden.  The 
whole  apartment,  so  delicate  and  elegant  in  its  decorations, 
so  choice  and  sequestered  in  its  situation  along  this  retired 
little  garden,  and  so  different  in  architecture  from  the 
neighboring  halls,  awakened  an  interest  in  its  history. 
— Washington  Irving  in  The  Alhambra. 

Expository  and  argumentative  paragraphs  are  of  sev- 
eral different  tj^pes.'  If  a  process  is  to  be  explained,  the 
matter  is  arranged  in  the  order  of  time,  as  in  The  Ex- 
periment, 109,  or  in  the  following  paragraj)h : 

It  has  been  known  from  time  immemorial  that  the  sweet 
liquids  which  may  be  obtained  by  expressing  the  juices  of 
the  fruits  and  stems  of  various  plants,  or  by  steeping 
malted  barley  in  hot  water,  or  by  mixing  honey  with  water 
— are  liable  to  undergo  a  series  of  very  singular  changes, 
if  freely  exposed  to  tlie  air  and  left  to  themselves  in  warm 


THE    PARAGRAPH 


247 


weather.  However  clear  and  pellucid  the  liquid  may  have 
been  when  first  prepared,  however  carefully  it  may  have 
been  freed,  by  straining  and  filtration,  from  even  the  finest 
visible  impurities,  it  will  not  remain  clear.  After  a  time 
it  will  become  cloudy  and  turbid ;  little  bubbles  will  be  seen 
rising  to  the  surface,  and  their  abundance  will  increase 
until  the  liquid  hisses  as  if  it  were  simmering  on  the  fire. 
By  degrees  some  of  the  solid  particles  which  produce  the 
turbidity  of  the  liquid  collect  at  its  surface  into  a  scum, 
which  is  blown  up  by  the  emerging  air-bubbles  into  a  thick, 
foamy  froth.  Another  moiety  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and 
accumulates  as  a  muddy  sediment,  or  "lees." — Thomas 
Henry  Hu.xley  in  Yeast. 

If  a  structure  is  to  be  explained,  the  matter  is  ari'anged 
as  in  description.  In  The  Roman  Domus,  114,  each  of 
paragraphs  3,  -1,  5,  6,  7,  and  8  presents  the  features  of 
a  part  of  the  domus  according  to  a  regular  plan ;  and 
in  the  following  exposition  of  the  volcano  the  same 
method  appears: 


CROSS   SECTION   OF  A  VOLCANO. 


Now  look  at  this  figure.  It  represents  a  section  of  a  vol- 
cano ;  tliat  is,  one  cut  in  half  to  show  you  the  inside.  A  is 
the  cone  of  cinders,     B,  the  black  line  up  tlirough  the  mid- 


248  EXGLISn   COMPOSITION 

die,  is  the  funnel,  or  crack,  throuo;]i  which  steam,  ashes,  lava, 
and  everything  else  rises.  C  is  the  crater  mouth.  D  D  D, 
which  looks  broken,  are  the  old  rocks  which  the  steam 
heaved  up  and  burst  before  it  could  <^et  out.  And  what  are 
the  black  lines  across,  marked  E  E  E  .''  They  are  the  streams 
of  la\a  which  have  burrowed  out,  some  covered  iij)  afj^ain  in 
cinders,  some  lying  bare  in  the  open  air,  some  still  inside  the 
cone,  bracing  it  together,  holding  it  up.  Something  like  this 
is  the  inside  of  a  volcano. — Chakles  Kingsley  in  Madam 
How  and  Lady  iVIiij. 

The  method  of  proceeding  from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex is  illustrated  on  page  127,  in  the  chapter  on  expo.si- 
tion,  and  two  more  examples  will  be  sufficient: 

In  the  hunter-state  men  are  wholly  employed  upon  the 
procuring  food,  clothing,  habitation,  and  other  necessaries; 
and  have  no  time  nor  zeal  for  studying  conveniences.  The 
ease  of  the  shepherd-state  affords  both  time  and  inclination 
for  useful  arts,  which  are  greatly  promoted  by  numbers 
who  are  relieved  by  agriculture  from  bodily  labor.  The 
soil,  by  gradual  im})rovenients  in  husbandry,  affords  plenty 
with  less  labor  than  at  first;  and  the  surplus  hands  are  em- 
ployed, first  in  useful  arts,  and  next  in  those  of  amusement. 
Arts  accordingly  make  the  quickest  progress  in  a  fertile 
soil,  which  produces  plenty  with  little  labor.  Arts  flour- 
ished early  in  Egypt  and  Chaldea,  countries  extremely 
fertile. — Lord  Kames  in  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man. 

Suppose  that  one  boj'^  at  school  has  a  ham  sent  him  from 
home,  and  suppose  that  another  boy  has  cake,  and  that 
each  has  more  of  his  own  than  he  cares  for  and  lacks  some- 
thing of  the  other,  what  are  the  proportions  in  which  they 
will  exchange.''  If  boy  A  likes  his  own  ham  scarcely  at 
all  or  not  very  much,  and  if  he  is  very  fond  of  cake,  he 
will  be  ready  to  barter  a  great  deal  of  it  against  a  little 
of  boy  I3's  cake;  and  if  boy  B  is  fond  of  cake  too  a^id  does 
not  care  so  much  for  ham,  cake  will  be  at  a  premium,  and 
a  very  little  of  it  will  go  a  great  way  in  the  transaction, 
especially  if  the  cake  is  a  small  one  and  the  ham  a  big 
one;  but  if  on  the  contrary  both  boys  care  much  for  ham 
and   neither   much   for   cake,    and   also   the   ham   be   small 


THE    PARAGRAPH  249 

and  the  cake  large,  then  the  ham  will  be  at  a  premium,  the 
cake  at  a  discount,  and  both  sides  of  the  exchange  will  be 
altered.  The  use  of  this  simplest  of  all  cases  is  that  you 
see  the  inevitable  complexity  of,  and  tliat  you  cannot 
artificially  simplify,  the  subject.  There  are  in  every  ex- 
change, as  we  here  see,  no  less  than  six  elements  which 
more  or  less  affect  it  in  general:  first  the  quantities  of  the 
two  commodities,  and  next  two  feelings  in  each  exchanger 
■ — first  his  craving  for  the  commodity  of  the  other,  and 
secondly  his  liking  or  disinclination  for  his  own.  In  every 
transaction,  small  or  great,  you  will  be  liable  to  blunder 
unless  you  consider  all  six. — Walter  Bagehot  in  Adam 
Smith  and  Our  Modern  Economy. 

Paragraphs  in  which  the  matter  is  arranged  in  a  cli- 
max, the  most  important  or  interesting  point  last,  may 
be  studied  on  pages  128,  129,  157,  222,  225,  and  226. 
This  order  is  also  shown  in  the  following  paragraph : 

But  what  corrupt  men,  in  the  fond  imaginations  of  san- 
guine avarice,  had  not  the  confidence  to  propose,  they  have 
found  a  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  England  hardy 
enough  to  undertake  for  them.  He  has  cheered  their 
drooping  spirits.  He  has  thanked  the  peculators  for  not 
desjjairing  of  their  commonwealth.  He  has  told  them  they 
were  too  modest.  He  has  replaced  the  twenty-five  per 
cent  wliich,  in  order  to  lighten  tliemselves,  tliey  had  aban- 
doned in  their  conscious  terror.  Instead  of  cutting  off  the 
interest,  as  they  had  themselves  consented  to  do,  with  the 
fourth  of  the  capital,  he  has  added  the  whole  growth  of 
four  years'  usury  of  twelve  per  cent  to  the  first  overgrown 
principal ;  and  has  again  grafted  on  this  meliorated  stock 
a  perpetual  annuity  of  six  per  cent,  to  take  place  from  the 
year  1781.  Let  no  man  hereafter  talk  of  the  decaying 
energies  of  nature.  All  the  acts  and  monuments  in  the 
records  of  peculation,  the  consolidated  corruption  of  ages, 
the  patterns  of  exemplary  plunder  in  the  heroic  times  of 
Roman  iniquity,  never  equalled  the  gigantic  corruption  of 
this  single  act.  Never  did  Nero,  in  all  the  insolent  prodi- 
gality of  despotism,  deal  out  to  his  praetorian  guards  a 
donation  fit  to  be.  named  with  the  largess  showered  down 


250  ENGLISH  jCOMPOSlTlON 

by  the  bounty  of  our  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  on  the 
faithful  band  of  his  Indian  sepoys. — Edmund  Burke  in 
Speech  on  the  Xobob  of  Arcot's  Debts. 

A  common  and  useful  type  of  j^aragraph,  especially 
for  exposition  and  argumentation,  contains  first  a  brief 
statement  of  tlie  topic,  tben  details  and  explanations, 
and  perhaps  at  the  end  a  sentence  or  phrase  of  sunnnary, 
conclusion,  or  application.  This  is  the  plan  of  all  the 
paragraphs  in  A  Theory  of  Wages,  111 ;  of  the  two  first 
in  Earth-zcorms  and  Their  Functio7is,  113;  all  in  The 
Roman  Domus,  114;  all  in  Folly  of  Using  Force  xcith 
the  Colonies,  152;  the  two  first  in  Evolutioji  of  the 
Horse,  153;  most  of  those  in  The  Abolition  of  Capital 
Punishment,  156;  the  second  and  last  in  The  Honor 
System,  160;  the  paragraph  on  the  relation  of  college 
life  to  school  life,  188;  that  on  the  examples  of  Ireland, 
Wales,  Chester,  and  Durham,  195;  and  the  following: 

In  every  living  organism  tliere  is  an  incessant  and  re- 
ciprocal activity  of  waste  and  rejiair.  The  living  fabric, 
in  the  very  actions  which  constitute  its  life,  is  momently 
yielding  up  its  particles  to  destruction,  like  the  coal  wliieli 
is  burned  in  tlie  furnace:  so  much  coal  to  so  much  heat, 
so  much  waste  of  tissue  to  so  much  vital  activity.  You 
cannot  wink  your  eye,  move  your  finger,  or  think  a  thought, 
but  some  minute  particle  of  your  substance  must  be  sac- 
rificed in  doing  so.  Unless  the  coal  which  is  burning  be 
from  time  to  time  replaced,  the  fire  soon  smoulders,  and 
finally  goes  out;  unless  the  substance  of  your  body,  w^hieh 
is  wasting,  be  from  time  to  time  furnished  with  fresh  fcxid, 
life  flickers,  and  at  length  becomes  extinct. — George  Henry 
Lewes  in  The  Physiology  of  Common  Life. 

As  to  the  windows  then ;  I  fear  we  must  grumble  again. 
In  most  decent  houses,  or  what  are  so  called,  the  windows 
are  much  too  big,  and  let  in  a  flood  of  light  in  a  ha})-hazard 


THE   PARAGRAPH  251 

and  ill-considered  way,  which  the  indwellers  are  forced  to 
obscure  again  by  shutters,  blinds,  curtains,  screens,  heavy 
upholsteries,  and  such  other  nuisances.  The  windows,  also, 
are  almost  always  brought  too  low  down,  and  often  so  low 
down  as  to  have  their  sills  on  a  level  with  our  ankles,  send- 
ing thereby  a  raking  light  across  the  room  that  destroys 
all  pleasantness  of  tone.  The  windows,  moreover,  are 
either  big  rectangular  holes  in  the  wall,  or,  which  is  worse, 
have  ill-proportioned  round  or  segmental  lieads,  while  the 
common  custom  in  "good"  houses  is  either  to  fill  these 
openings  with  one  huge  sheet  of  plate-glass,  or  to  divide 
them  across  the  middle  with  a  thin  bar.  If  we  insist  on 
glazing  them  thus,  we  may  make  up  our  minds  that  we 
have  done  the  worst  we  can  for  our  windows,  nor  can 
a  room  look  tolerable  where  it  is  so  treated.  You  may 
see  how  people  feel  this  by  their  admiration  of  the 
tracery  of  a  Gothic  window  or  the  lattice-work  of  a  Cairo 
house.  Our  makesliift  substitute  for  those  beauties  must 
be  the  filling  of  the  window  with  moderate-sized  panes  of 
glass  (plate-glass  if  you  will)  set  in  solid  sash-bars;  we 
shall  then  at  all  events  feel  as  if  we  were  indoors  on  a 
cold  day — as  if  we  had  a  roof  over  our  heads. — William 
Morris  in  Hopes  and  Fears  for  Art. 

Our  verb  "to  govern"  is  an  Old  French  word,  one  of  that 
great  host  of  French  words  which  became  a  part  of  the 
English  language  between  the  eleventh  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies, when  so  much  French  was  spoken  in  England.  The 
French  word  was  gouverner,  and  its  oldest  form  was  the 
Latin  gubernare,  a  word  which  the  Romans  borrowed  from 
the  Greek,  and  meant  originally  "to  steer  the  ship."  Hence 
it  very  naturally  came  to  mean  "to  guide,"  "to  direct," 
"to  command."  The  comparison  between  governing  and 
steering  was  a  happy  one.  To  govern  is  not  to  command 
as  a  master  commands  a  slave,  but  it  is  to  issue  orders  and 
give  directions  for  the  common  good;  for  the  interests  of 
the  man  at  the  helm  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  people 
in  the  ship.  All  must  float  or  sink  together.  Hence  we 
sometimes  speak  of  the  "ship  of  state,"  and  we  often  call 
the  state  a  "commonwealth,"  or  something  in  the  weal  or 
welfare  of  which  all  the  people  are  alike  interested. — -John 
FiSKE  in  Civil  Government  in  the   United  States. 


352 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 


Since  the  beginning  and  tlie  end  of  the  paragraph 
are,  as  in  tlie  wliole  composition,  conspicuous  phices,  they 
should  contain  ideas  which  deserve  emphasis.  An  effec- 
tive beginning  is  often,  though  not  invariably,  a  word, 
phrase,  or  sentence  to  indicate  the  topic.  When  the 
reader  has  to  penetrate  some  distance  into  the  para- 
graph before  he  can  discover  exactly  what  it  is  all  about, 
he  moves  slowly  and  with  difficulty  ;  but  when  he  is  told 
in  the  first  line  or  two,  he  understands  at  once  the  bear- 
ing of  subsequent  statements.  Of  the  subjoined  forms, 
the  first,  in  which  the  topic  is  set  forth  at  the  beginning, 
is  far  clearer: 


In  fact,  the  Jews  are  not 
now  excluded  from  political 
power.  They  possess  it,  and 
as  long  as  they  are  allowed 
to"  accumulate  large  for- 
tunes, they  must  possess  it. 
The  distinction  which  is 
sometimes  made  between 
civil  privileges  and  jiolitieal 
power  is  a  distinction  with- 
out a  difference.  Privileges 
are  power.  Civil  and  polit- 
ical are  synonymous  words, 
the  one  derived  from  the 
Latin,  the  other  from  the 
Greek.  Nor  is  this  mere 
verbal  quibbling.  If  we 
look  for  a  moment  at  the 
facts  of  the  case,  we  shall 
see  that  the  things  are  in- 
separable, or  rather  identi- 
cal.^— -Thomas  Bahixgton 
Macaulay  in  Civil  Disabil- 
ities of  the  Jews. 


The  distinction  which  is 
sometimes  made  between 
civil  privileges  and  political 
power  is  a  distinction  with- 
out a  difference.  Privileges 
are  power.  Civil  and  polit- 
ical are  synonymous  words, 
the  one  derived  from  the 
Latin,  the  other  from  the 
Greek.  Nor  is  this  mere 
verbal  quibbling.  If  we 
look  for  a  moment  at  the 
facts  of  the  case,  we  shall 
see  that  the  things  are  in- 
separable, or  rather  identi- 
cal. Hence  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  Jews  are  not 
now  excluded  from  political 
power.  They  possess  it,  and 
as  long  as  they  are  allowed 
to  accumulate  large  for- 
tunes, they  must  possess  it. 


THE    PARAGKAPH  253 

This  method  of  beginning,  as  applied  to  exposition 
and  argumentation,  is  well  illustrated  in  the  paragraphs 
on  pages  250  and  251.  It  is,  moreover,  useful  in  nar- 
ration and  description,  as  in  the  following  citations; 

One  Hot  Afternoon,  19: 

Paragraph  3,  "Then  he  had  a  dream." 
The  Bla<-k  Hole  of  Calcutta,  29 : 

Paragraph  2,  "Then  was  committed  that  great  crime — " 
"  3,  "Nothing  in  history  or  fiction     .     .     .     ap- 

proaches the  horrors  which  were  recounted 
by  the  few  survivors  of  that  night." 

The  Woods  and  the  Pacific,  73: 

Paragraph  1,  "The  Bay  of  Monterey " 

2,  "These  long  beaches " 

3,  "The  one  common  note  of  all  this  country 

is  the  haunting  presence  of  the  ocean." 
**  5,  "But   it    is    the    Pacific    that   exercises    the 

most  direct  and  obvious   power  upon  the 
climate." 

The  first  sentence,  whether  or  not  it  indicate  the  topic, 
often  contains  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  that  refers  to 
the  preceding  paragraph  and  thus  forms  a  connective. 
The  following  quotations  give  the  end  of  one  paragraph 
and  the  beginning  of  the  next,  with  the  connective  in 
italics : 

Higg,  the  son  of  Snell,  withdrew  into  the  crowd,  but, 
interested  in  the  fate  of  his  benefactress,  lingered  until 
he  should  learn  her  doom,  even  at  tlie  risk  of  again  en- 
countering the  frown  of  that  severe  judge,  the  terror  of 
which  withered  his  very  heart  within  him. 

At  this  period  of  the  trial,  the  Grand  Master  commanded 
Rebecca  to  unveil  herself.  .  .  . — Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
Ivanhoe. 

He  alone  had  his  face  turned  toward  the  door- 
way, and  fixing  it  on  the  blank  gaze  of  a  bedizened  child 
stationed    as    a   masquerading   advertisement    on    the    plat- 


254  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION^ 

form  of  an  itinerant  show,  stood  close  beliind  a  lady  deeply 
engaged  at  the  roulette-table. 

About  this  table,  fifty  or  sixty  persons  were  assembled. 
•    .    . — George  Eliot  in  Daniel  Deronda. 

.  .  .  "The  chief  jewel  of  the  realm,"  as  Mary  herself 
called  it,  was  suddenly  reft  away;  and  the  surrender  of 
Guisnes,  which  soon  followed,  left  England  without  a  foot 
of  land  on  the  Continent. 

Bitterly  as  the  blow  was  felt,  the  Council,  though  i)as- 
sionately  pressed  by  the  Queen,  could  find  neither  money 
nor  nien  for  any  attempt  to  recover  the  town.  .  .  . — 
John  Richard  Green  in  History  of  the  English  People. 

Similar  connectives  at  the  beginning  of  paragraplis 
may  be  found  in  the  quotations  throughout  this  volume. 
The  foUowing  arc  typical: 

One  Hot  Afternoon,  19: 

Paragraph  4,  "At  this  glorious  crisis " 

The  Fan  Tassel  Farm,  68 : 

Paragraph    2,  "The    pedagogue's    moutli   watered    as   he 
looked   upon    this   sutnptuous  promise   of 
luxurious  winter  fare." 
The  Roman  Domus,  Hi: 

Paragraph  11,  "To  appreciate    this   singular   beauty   and 

fascination " 

The  Abolition  of  Capital  Punishment,  156: 

Paragraph  6,  "But  apart  from  the  injustice  and  bru- 
tality of  capital  punishment,  ithvLS  failed 
to  protect  society." 

A  suitable  ending  of  tlic  paragraph  is  often  a  word, 
phrase,  or  sentence,  whicli  sums  up  or  points  it — a 
"snapper."  This  type  of  ending  may  be  obsen-ed  in 
tlie  paragraphs  on  the  volcano,  247,  on  corruption  in 
India,  249,  on  the  waste  and  repair  in  a  living  organism, 
250,  and  on  the  disabilities  of  the  eJews,  252.  An  ex- 
ample from  narrative  is  the  following: 


THE    PARAGRAPH  255 

They  both  leaned  over  the  parapet,  and  gazed  downward 
as  earnestly  as  if  some  inestimable  treasure  had  fallen  over, 
and  were  yet  recoverable.  On  the  pavement  below  was  a 
dark  mass,  lying  in  a  heap,  with  little  or  nothing  human 
in  its  appearance,  except  that  the  hands  were  stretched  out 
as  if  they  might  have  clutched  for  a  moment  at  the  small 
square  stones.  But  there  was  no  motion  in  them,  now. 
Miriam  watched  the  heap  of  mortality  while  she  could 
count  a  hundred,  which  she  took  pains  to  do.  No  stir; 
not  a  finger  moved! — Nathaniel  Hawthorne  in  The 
Marble  Faun. 

The  end  as  well  as  the  beginning  may  contain  a  con- 
nective phrase.  Such  connectives  are  printed  in  italics 
in  the  following  excerpts,  wliich  give  the  end  of  one 
paragraph  and  the  beginning  of  another: 

.  .  .  I  do  not  propose  to  drag  you  with  me  on  such 
an  historical  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  but  only  to 
show  you  that  (however  needful  it  may  be  to  go  abroad 
for  the  study  of  eesthetics)  a  man  who  uses  the  ej^es  of 
his  heart  may  find  here  also  pretty  bits  of  what  may  be 
called  the  social  picturesque,  and  little  landscapes  over 
which  that  Indian-summer  atmosphere  of  the  past  broods 
as  sweetly  and  tenderly  as  over  a  Roman  ruin.  Let  tis 
look  at  the  Cambridge  of  thirty  years  since. 

The  seat  of  the  oldest  college  in  America,  it  had,  of 
course,  some  of  that  cloistered  quiet  which  characterizes 
all  university  towns.  Even  now,  delicately-thoughtful  A. 
H.  C.  tells  me  that  he  finds  in  its  intellectual  atmosphere 
a  repose  which  recalls  that  of  grand  old  Oxford. 
— James  Russell  Lowell  in  Cambridge  Thirty  Years 
Ago. 

.  .  .  In  1736  there  appeared  an  advertisement  in  the 
Gentleman's  Magazine :  "At  Edial,  near  Lichfield,  in  Staf- 
fordshire, young  gentlemen  are  boarded  and  taught  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages  by  Samuel  Johnson."  If,  as 
seems  probable,  Mrs.  Johnson's  money  supplied  the  funds 
for  this  venture,  it  was  an  unlucky  speculation. 

Johnson  was  not  fitted  to  be  a  pedagogue.  Success  in 
that  profession  implies  skill  in  the  management  of  pupils. 


256  ENGLisn  coMPOsmoif 

but  perhaps  still  more  decidedly  in  the  management  of 
parents.  Johnson  had  little  qualifications  in  either  way. 
,     .     . — Leslie  Stephen  in  Samuel  Johnson. 

.  .  .  Nelson  then  remarked  that  the  junior  flag  officers 
of  his  fleet  had  been  omitted  in  this  vote  of  thanks;  and 
bis  surprise  at  tlie  omission  was  expressed  with  more  as- 
perity, perhaps,  than  an  off"ence  so  entirely  and  manifestly 
unintentional  deserved;  but  it  arose  from  that  generous  re- 
gard for  the  feelings  as  well  as  interests  of  all  who  were 
under  his  command,  which  made  him  as  much  beloved  in 
the  fleets  of  Britain  as  he  was  dreaded  in  those  of  the 
enemy. 

Never  was  any  commander  more  beloved.  He  governed 
men  by  their  reason  and  their  affections:  they  knew  that 
he  was  incapable  of  caprice  or  tyranny;  and  they  obej^ed 
him  with  alacrity  and  joy,  because  he  possessed  their  con- 
fidence as  well  as  their  love.  "Our  Nel,"  they  used  to  say, 
"is  as  brave  as  a  lion  and  as  gentle  as  a  lamb."  .  .  . — 
Robert  Southey  in  The  Life  of  Nelson. 

48.  Proportion  in  the  Paragraph. — In  the  paragraph, 
as  in  the  whole  composition,  each  idea  should  be  assigned 
space  in  proportion  to  its  interest  or  significance. 

49.  Clearness  in  the  Paragraph. — The  connective  words 
and  plirases  that  help  make  the  whole  composition  clear 
(see  page  51)  are  equally  serviceable  between  parts  of 
the  paragraph. 

The  relation  of  parts  is  sometimes  clearer  when  similar 
ideas  are  cast  into  similarly  constructed  sentences.  The 
parallel  constructions  indicate  at  first  glance  the  paral- 
lelism of  tliought,  as  in  the  following  passages : 

The  greatest  thinkers  have  been  too  intent  on  their  sub- 
ject to  admit  of  interrujition ;  they  have  been  men  of  absent 
minds  and  idiosyncratic  habits,  and  have,  more  or  less, 
shunned  the  lecture  room  and  the  public  school.  Pythag- 
oras, the  light  of  Magna  Graecia,  lived  for  a  time  in  a  cave. 
Thales,  the  light  of  Ionia,  lived  unmarried  and  in  private, 


THE   PARAGRAPH  257 

and  refused  the  invitations  of  princes.  Plato  withdrew 
from  Athens  to  the  groves  of  Academus.  Aristotle  gave 
twenty  years  to  a  studious  discipleship  under  him.  Friar 
Bacon  lived  in  his  tower  upon  the  Isis.  Newton  indulged 
in  an  intense  severity  of  meditation  which  almost  shook  his 
reason.  The  great  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  electricity 
were  not  made  in  universities. — Cardinal  Newman  in  The 
Idea  of  a  University. 

During  the  prpgress  of  her  movement  and  in  the  centre 
of  ferocious  struggles,  she  had  manifested  the  temper  of 
her  feelings  by  the  pity  which  she  had  everywhere  ex- 
pressed for  the  suffering  enemy.  She  forwarded  to  the 
English  leaders  a  touching  invitation  to  unite  with  the 
French,  as  brothers,  in  a  common  crusade  against  infidels, 
thus  opening  the  road  for  a  soldierly  retreat.  She  inter- 
posed to  protect  the  captive  or  the  wounded;  she  mourned 
over  the  excesses  of  her  countrymen ;  she  threw  herself  off 
her  horse  to  kneel  by  the  dying  English  soldier,  and  to 
comfort  him  with  such  ministrations,  physical  or  spiritual, 
as  his  situation  allowed.  "Nolebat,"  says  the  evidence, 
"uti  ense  suo,  aut  quemquam  interficere."  She  sheltered 
the  English  that  invoked  her  aid,  in  her  own  quarters.  She 
wept  as  she  beheld,  stretclied  on  the  field  of  battle,  so  many 
brave  enemies  that  had  died  without  confession. — Thomas 
De  Quincey  in  Joan  of  Arc. 

It  is  so  easy  to  feel  pride  and  satisfaction  in  one's  own 
things,  so  hard  to  make  sure  that  one  is  right  in  feeling  it ! 
We  have  a  great  empire.  But  so  had  Nebuchadnezzar. 
We  extol  the  "unrivalled  happiness"  of  our  national  civ- 
ilization. But  then  comes  a  candid  friend,  and  remarks 
that  our  upper  class  is  materialized,  our  middle  class  vul- 
garized, and  our  lower  class  brutalized.  We  are  proud  of 
our  jDainting,  our  music.  But  we  find  that  in  the  judgment 
of  other  people  our  painting  is  questionable,  and  our  music 
non-existent.  We  are  proud  of  our  men  of  science.  And 
here  it  turns  out  that  the  world  is  with  us ;  we  find  that 
in  the  judgment  of  other  people,  too,  Newton  among  the 
dead  and  Mr.  Darwin  among  the  living  hold  as  high  a 
place  as  they  hold  in  our  national  opinion. — Matthew 
Arnold  in  Preface  to  the  Poems  of  Wordsworth. 


^58  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

Tlie  two  objections  to  the  parallel  construction  are 
that  it  is  palpably  artificial,  a  flourish  of  style  which 
is  likely  to  divert  attention  from  what  is  said  to  the  mere 
manner  of  saying  it ;  and  that,  even  when  the  artificiality 
may  not  be  apparent,  it  soon  becomes  monotonous.  For 
these  reasons  this  construction  should  be  restricted  to 
short  passages. 

Where  parallel  construction  is  undesirable,  the  relation 
between  parts  of  the  paragraph  will  sometimes  be  clearer 
if  one  person  is  ke])t  forward  as  the  j)rincipal  actor,  one 
thing  as  the  centre  of  interest.  The  noun  or  pronovui 
referring  to  that  person  or  thing  need  not,  as  in  the 
foregoing  quotation  from  De  Quincey,  be  the  first  word 
of  each  sentence;  but,  through  an  agreeable  variety  of 
sentence  structure,  it  may  be  the  grammatical  subject  of 
the  leading,  and  occasi(mally  the  subordinate,  clauses  of 
nearly  every  sentence.  The  gain  in  smoothness  and  clear- 
ness is  evident  from  the  following  comparison — a  pas- 
sage from  Thackeray  and  the  same  facts  put  in  the  style 
of  the  average  school-boy : 

At  colleo:e  his  career  was  At  college  his  career  was 

of  course  highly  creditable.  of  course  highly  creditable. 

And  here  he  prepared  him-  Public    life    was    the    thing 

self     for    public     life,     into  for  which  he  prepared  him- 

which   he   was   to   be   intro-  self.         Lord     Binkie,     his 

duced   by  the   patronage   of  grandfather,    was    going    to 

his   grandfather.   Lord   Bin-  introduce  him  into  it.      An- 

kie,  by  studying  the  ancient  cient    and    modern    orators 

and     modern     orators     with  were  his  chief  study,  and  he 

great     assiduity,      and      by  spoke    unceasingly     at    the 

speaking  unceasingly  at  the  debating  societies.     His  flux 

debating        societies.        But  of  words  was  fine,  and  his 

though    he    had    a    fine    flux  little     voice     was     pom})ous 

of  words,  and  delivered   his  and     jilcasant     to     himself. 

little  voice  with  great  pom-  No     sentiment     or     o])inion 


THE    PAKAGRAPH  259 

posity  and  pleasure  to  him-  wliicli  was  not  perfectly 
self,  and  never  advanced  trite  and  stale  and  sup- 
any  sentiment  or  opinion  ported  by  a  Latin  quotation 
which  was  not  perfectly  was  ever  advanced  by  him. 
trite  and  stale  and  sup-  In  spite  of  these  things  and 
ported  by  a  Latin  quota-  of  the  mediocrity  which 
tion,  yet  he  failed  somehow,  ought  to  have  made  him 
in  spite  of  a  mediocrity  successful,  he  failed  some- 
which  ouglit  to  have  insured  how.  Not  even  the  prize 
any  man  a  success.  He  did  poem  came  to  him,  which  all 
not  even  get  the  prize  poem,  his  friends  said  was  sure  to 
which  all  his  friends  said  be  his. 
he  was  sure  of. — Vanity 
Fair. 

Two  other  examples  of  tlie  same  method  of  keeping 
one  subject  prominent  are  subjoined: 

The  Six  Jolly  Fellowship-Porters,  already  mentioned  as 
a  tavern  of  dropsical  appearance,  had  long  settled  down 
into  a  state  of  hale  infirmity.  In  its  whole  constitution 
it  had  not  a  straight  floor,  and  hardly  a  straight  line ;  but 
it  had  outlasted,  and  clearly  would  yet  outlast,  many  a  bet- 
ter-trimmed building,  many  a  sprucer  public-house.  Exter- 
nally it  was  a  narrow,  lopsided  wooden  jumble  of  corpu- 
lent windows,  heaped  one  upon  another  as  you  might  heap 
as  many  toppling  oranges,  with  a  crazy  wooden  veranda 
impending  over  the  water;  indeed  the  whole  house,  in- 
clusive of  the  complaining  flag-staff  on  the  roof,  impended 
over  the  water,  but  seemed  to  have  got  into  the  condition 
of  a  faint-hearted  diver  who  has  paused  so  long  on  the 
brink  that  he  will  never  go  in  at  all. — Charles  Dickens 
in  Our  Mutual  Friend. 

Of  all  Burke's  writings  none  are  so  fit  to  secure  un- 
qualified and  unanimous  admiration  as  the  three  pieces  on 
this  momentous  struggle  [the  American  Revolution]  :  the 
Speech  on  American  Taxation  (April  19,  liT^-);  the 
Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America  (March  22,  1775); 
and  the  Letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol  (1777).  Together 
they  hardly  exceed  the  compass  of  the  little  volume  which 
the  reader  now  has   in  his   hands.     It  is   no   exaggeration 


260  ENGLTSn    rOMPOSTTION- 

to  say  that  they  com])o.se  the  most  perfect  maniial  in  our 
literature,  or  in  any  literature,  for  one  who  approaches  the 
study  of  public  affairs,  wlietlicr  for  knowledge  or  for  prac- 
tice. They  are  an  exampk'  without  fault  of  all  the  quali- 
ties which  the  critic,  whether  a  theorist  or  an  actor,  of 
great  political  situations  should  strive  by  night  and  by  day 
to  possess.  If  the  subject  with  which  they  deal  were  less 
near  than  it  is  to  our  interests  and  affections  as  free  citi- 
zens, these  three  performances  would  still  aboimd  in  the 
lessons  of  an  incomparable  method. — John  Morley  in 
Burke. 

50.  Interest  in  the  Paragraph. — Each  paragraph  must 
be  interesting  if  the  whole  composition  is  to  be  interest- 
ing; must  contain,  when  tlie  topic  permits,  the  personal 
sensations  and  the  specific  examples.  When  a  paragraph 
is  dull  or  slow,  the  remedy  is  often  to  boil  it  down  to  a 
sentence  or  two  or  else  to  cut  it  out  altogether. 

QUESTIONS   AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Define  the  word  paragraph. 

2.  What  is  a  unitary  paragraph? 

3.  Rewrite  the  following  selection,  making  the  paragraphs  ac- 
cording to  modern  usage. 

He  then  led  me  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  rock,  and 
placing  me  on  the  top  of  it,  "Cast  thy  eyes  eastward,"  said 
he,  "and  tell  me  what  tliou  seest."  "I  see,"  said  I,  "a 
huge  valley  and  a  prodigious  tide  of  water  rolling  through 
it."  "The  valley  that  thou  seest,"  said  he,  "is  the  vale 
of  miser}^,  and  the  tide  of  water  that  thou  seest  is  part  of 
the  great  tide  of  eternity."  "What  is  the  reason,"  said  I, 
"that  the  tide  I  see  rises  out  of  a  thick  mist  at  one  end 
and  again  loses  itself  in  a  thick  mist  at  the  other.'*"  "What 
thou  seest,"  said  he,  "is  tliat  jiortion  of  eternity  which  is 
called  time,  measured  out  by  the  sun  and  reaching  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  to  its  consmnmation.  Examine 
now,"  said  he,  "this  sea  that  is  thus  bounded  with  dark- 
ness at  both  ends,  and  tell  me  what  thou  discoverest  in  it." 
"I  see  a  bridge,"  said  I,  "standing  in  the  midst  of  the  tide." 


THE   PARAGRAPH  261 

"The  bridge  thou  seest/'  said  lie,  "is  human  life;  consider 
it  attentively."  Upon  a  more  leisurely  survey  of  it,  I  found 
that  it  consisted  of  threescore  and  ten  entire  arches,  with 
several  broken  arches  which^  added  to  those  that  were  en- 
tire, made  up  the  number  about  an  hundred.  As  I  was 
counting  the  arches,  the  genius  told  me  that  this  bridge 
consisted  at  first  of  a  thousand  arches ;  but  that  a  great 
flood  swept  away  the  rest  and  left  the  bridge  in  the  ruinous 
condition  I  now  beheld  it.  "But  tell  me  further,"  said  he, 
"what  thou  discoverest  on  it."  "I  see  multitudes  of  people 
passing  over  it,"  said  I,  "and  a  black  cloud  hanging  on 
each  end  of  it."  As  I  looked  more  attentively,  I  saw  sev- 
eral of  the  passengers  dropping  through  the  bridge  into 
the  great  tide  that  flowed  underneath  it;  and  upon  further 
examination  perceived  there  were  innumerable  trap-doors 
that  lay  concealed  in  the  bridge,  which  the  passengers  no 
sooner  trod  upon  but  they  fell  through  them  into  the  tide 
and  immediately  disappeared.  These  hidden  pitfalls  were 
set  very  thick  at  the  entrance  of  the  bridge,  so  that  throngs 
of  people  no  sooner  broke  through  the  cloud  but  many  of 
them  fell  into  them.  They  grew  thinner  toward  the  middle, 
but  multiplied  and  lay  closer  together  toward  the  end  of 
the  arches  that  were  entire. — Joseph  Addison  in  The 
Spectator. 

4.  Rewrite  the  following  selections,  making  the  paragraph  divis- 
ions at  v/hat  in  your  judgment,  are  the  proper  places  : 

Besides  a  lovely  person,  Lady  Barbara  Sinclair  had  a 
character  that  he  saw  would  make  him;  and  in  fact,  Lady 
Barbara  Sinclair  was,  to  an  inexperienced  eye,  the  exact 
opposite  of  Lord  Ipsden. 

Her  mental  pulse  was  as  plethoric  as   his  was  languid. 

She  was  as  enthusiastic  as  he  was  cool. 

She  took  a  warm  interest  in  everything. 

She  believed  that  government  is  a  science,  and  one  that 
goes  with  copia  verhorum. 

She  believed  that  in  England  government  is  adminis- 
tered, not  by  a  set  of  men  whose  salaries  range  from 
eighty  to  five  hundred  pounds  a  year  and  whose  names  are 
never  heard,  but  by  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and 
other  great  men. 


262  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Hence  she  inferred  that  it  matters  very  mucli  to  all  in 
whose  hand  is  the  rudder  of  that  state  vessel,  which  goes 
down  the  wind  of  ])ublic  opinion  without  veering  a  point, 
let  who  will  be  at  the  helm. 

She  also  cared  very  much  who  was  the  new  bishop.  Re- 
ligion, or  if  not  religion,  theology,  Avould  be  affected 
thereby. 

She  was  enthusiastic  about  poets ;  imagined  their  verse 
to  be  some  sort  of  clew  to  their  characters,  and  so  on. 

She  had  other  theories,  which  will  be  indicated  by  and 
by;  at  present  it  is  enough  to  say  that  her  mind  was  young, 
healthy,  somewhat  original,  full  of  fire  and  faith,  and 
empty  of  experience. — Charles  Reade  in  Christie  John- 
stone. 

A  little  after  sundown  the  full  fury  of  the  gale  broke 
forth,  such  a  gale  as  I  have  never  seen  in  summer,  nor, 
seeing  how  swiftly  it  had  come,  even  in  winter.  Mary  and 
I  sat  in  silence,  the  house  quaking  overhead,  the  tempest 
howling  without,  the  fire  between  us  sputtering  with  rain- 
drops. Our  thouglits  were  far  away  with  the  poor  fellows 
on  the  schooner,  or  my  not  less  unhappy  uncle,  houseless 
on  the  promontory ;  and  yet  ever  and  again  we  were  startled 
back  to  ourselves,  when  the  wind  would  rise  and  strike  the 
gable  like  a  solid  body,  or  suddenly  fall  and  draw  away, 
so  that  the  fire  leaped  into  flame  and  our  hearts  bounded 
in  our  sides.  Now  the  storm  in  its  might  would  seize  and 
shake  the  four  corners  of  the  roof,  roaring  like  leviathan 
in  anger. 

Anon,  in  a  lull,  cold  eddies  of  tempest  moved  shudder- 
ingly  in  the  room,  lifting  the  hair  upon  our  heads  and 
passing  between  us  as  we  sat.  And  again  the  wind  would 
break  forth  in  a  chorus  of  melancholy  sounds,  hooting  low 
in  the  chimney,  wailing  with  flutelike  softness  round  the 
house.  It  was  perha])s  eight  o'clock  when  Rorie  came  in 
and  pulled  me  mysteriously  to  the  door.  My  uncle,  it 
appeared,  had  frightened  even  his  constant  comrade;  and 
Rorie,  uneasy  at  his  extravagance,  prayed  me  to  come 
out  and  share  the  watch.  I  hastened  to  do  as  I  was  asked; 
the  more  readily  as,  what  Mith  fear  and  horror  and  the 
electrical  tension  of  the  night,  1  was  myself  restless  and 
disposed  for  action. 


THE   PARAGRAPH  263 

I  told  Mary  to  be  under  no  alarm,  for  I  should  be  a 
safeguard  on  her  father;  and,  wrapping  myself  w,armly 
in  a  plaid,  I  followed  Rorie  into  the  open  air. 

FRANKLIN 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  men  certainly  of  our  times 
as  a  politician,  or  of  any  age  as  a  philosopher,  was  Frank- 
lin; who  also  stands  alone  in  combining  together  these  two 
characters,  the  greatest  that  man  can  sustain;  and  in  this, 
that  having  borne  the  first  part  in  enlarging  science  by 
one  of  the  greatest  discoveries  ever  made,  he  bore  the  sec- 
ond part  in  fovmding  one  of  the  greatest  empires  in  the 
world.  In  this  truly  great  man  everything  seems  to  con- 
cur that  goes  toward  the  constitution  of  exalted  merit. 
First,  he  was  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune.  Born  in 
the  humblest  station,  he  raised  himself  by  his  talents  and 
his  industry,  first  to  the  place  in  society  which  may  be 
attained  with  the  help  only  of  extraordinary  abilities,  great 
application,  and  good  luck;  but  next,  to  the  loftier  heights 
which  a  daring  and  happy  genius  alone  can  scale;  and  the 
poor  printer's  boy,  who  at  one  period  of  his  life  had  no  cov- 
ering to  shelter  his  head  from  the  dews  of  night,  rent  in 
twain  the  proud  dominion  of  England,  and  lived  to  be  the 
ambassador  of  a  commonwealth  which  he  had  formed,  at  the 
court  of  the  haughty  monarchs  of  France,  who  had  been 
his  allies.  Then  he  had  been  tried  by  prosperity  as  well 
as  adverse  fortune,  and  had  passed  unhurt  through  the 
perils  of  both.  No  ordinary  apprentice,  no  commonplace 
journeyman,  ever  laid  the  foundations  of  his  independence 
in  habits  of  industry  and  temperance  more  deep  than  he 
did,  whose  genius  was  afterward  to  rank  him  with  the 
Galileos  and  the  Newtons  of  the  old  world.  No  patrician 
born  to  shine  in  courts  or  assist  at  the  councils  of  monarchs 
ever  bore  his  honors  in  a  lofty  station  more  easily  or  was 
less  spoiled  by  the  enjoyment  of  them,  than  this  common 
workman  did  when  negotiating  with  royal  representatives 
or  caressed  by  all  the  beauty  and  fashion  of  the  most 
brilliant  court  in  Europe.  Again,  he  was  self-taught  in 
all  he  knew.  His  hours  of  study  were  stolen  from  those 
of  sleep  and  of  meals,  or  gained  by  some  ingenious  con- 
trivance for  reading  while  the  work  of  his   daily  calling 


264  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 

went  on.  Assisted  by  none  of  tlie  helps  which  affluence 
tenders  to  the  studies  of  the  rich,  he  had  to  supply  the 
place  of  tutors  bj'^  redoubled  diligence,  and  of  commentaries 
by  repeated  perusal.  Nay,  the  possession  of  books  was 
to  be  obtained  by  copying  what  the  art  which'  he  himself 
exercised  furnished  easily  to  others. 

5.  What  is  a  convenient  test  of  unity  of  the  paragraph,  espe- 
cially in  exposition  or  argumentation? 

6.  Apply  this  test  to  each  paragraph  of  Folly  of  Using  Force  with 
the  Colonies,  152. 

7.  Bring  a  paragraph  of  your  own  to  which  this  test  may  be 
successfully  applied. 

8.  What  are  the  principal  methods  of  ordering  material  in  a 
paragraph? 

9.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph  in  which  the  order  is 
that  of  time ;  one  in  which,  as  in  description,  the  details  are  pre- 
sented according  to  some  regular  plan  ;  one  in  which  simple  ideas 
lead  up  to  the  more  complex ;  and  one  in  which  there  is  a  progres- 
aion  from  the  less  to  the  more  important  or  interesting  ideas. 

10.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  paragraphs  of  each  of  these 
types. 

11.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph  which  contains  first  a 
brief  statement  of  the  topic,  then  details  and  explanations,  and 
finally  a  sentence  or  phrase  of  summary  or  application. 

12.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

13.  Why  should  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  paragraph  contain 
ideas  which  deserve  emphasis? 

14.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph,  the  first  sentence  of 
which  contains  some  phrase  or  clause  to  connect  with  the  preceding 
paragraph. 

15.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

16.  Can  you,  by  adding  a  connective  word  or  phrase,  improve  the 
opening  sentences  of  the  second  paragraph  in  each  of  the  following 
selections: 

.  .  .  "No,  my  children,"  continued  I  more  gravely, 
"those  gowns  may  be  altered  into  something  of  a  plainer 
cut;  for  finery  is  very  unbecoming  in  us  who  want  the 
means  of  decency.  I  do  not  know  wliether  sucli  flouncing 
and  shredding  is  becoming  even  in  the  rich,  if  we  consider, 
upon   a   moderate   calculation,  that    the   nakedness   of   the 


THE    PARAGRAPH  265 

indigent  world  may  be  clotlied  from  the  trimmings  of  the 
vain." 

They  went  with  great  composure  to  change  their  dress; 
and  the  next  day  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  my 
daughters,  at  their  own  request,  employed  in  cutting  up 
their  trains  into  Sunday  waistcoats  for  Dick  and  Bill,  the 
two  little  ones,  and,  what  was  still  more  satisfactory,  the 
gowns  seemed  improved  by  this  curtailing. 

.  .  .  He  would  fain  have  persuaded  me  to  retain  him 
as  a  servant,  assuring  me  that,  in  the  event  of  my  com- 
pliance, he  would  forget  his  wife  and  children  and  follow 
me  through  the  world.  I  declined,  however,  to  accede  to 
his  request,  though  I  was  in  need  of  a  domestic;  I  there- 
fore sent  him  back  to  Cordova,  where,  as  I  subsequently 
learned,  he  died  suddenly  about  a  week  after  his  return. 

One  day  he  took  out  his  purse,  and,  after  counting  his 
money,  said  to  his  wife,  "I  have  made  ninety-five  dollars 
by  tliis  journey  with  the  Englishman  and  by  the  sale  of 
the  jacaj  this  I  could  easily  double  by  one  successful  vent- 
ure in  the  smuggling  lay.  To-morrow  I  will  depart  for 
Lisbon  to  buy  diamonds.  I  wonder  if  the  beast  requires 
to  be  shod.''"  He  then  started  up  and  made  for  the  door, 
with  the  intention  of  going  to  the  stable;  ere,  however, 
his  foot  had  crossed  the  threshold,  he  fell  dead  on  the  floor. 

17.  What  is  often  a  suitable  ending  of  a  paragraph? 

18.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph  which  ends  with  what 
may  be  called  a  *'  snapper." 

19.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

20.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph,  the  last  sentence  of 
which  contains  a  phrase  leading  up  to  the  next  paragraph. 

21.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

22.  What  is  the  general  rule  for  proportion  in  the  paragraph  ? 

23.  What  is  the  first  suggestion  for  clearness  in  the  paragraph? 

24.  What  is  the  value  of  parallel  constructions? 

25.  What  are  the  two  objections  to  parallel  constructions? 

26.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph  containing  parallel  con- 
structions? 

27.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

28.  Rewrite  the  following  paragraph,  putting  in  parallel  con- 
structions where  they  would  be  an  improvement: 


266  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Carry  on  the  principle  by  which  you  expelled  Mr. 
Wilkes,  there  is  not  a  man  in  the  House,  hardly  a  man  in 
the  nation,  who  may  not  be  disqualified.  That  this  House 
should  have  no  power  of  expulsion  is  a  hard  saying.  It 
is  a  dangerous  saying  that  this  House  should  have  a  gen- 
eral discretionary  power  of  disqualification.  The  saying 
that  the  people  should  not  choose  their  own  representative 
shakes  tlie  Constitution.  The  Constitution  is  subverted  by 
saying  that  this  House  should  name  the  representative. 

29.  What  is  the  advantage  of  keeping  one  person  or  thing— or  the 
nouns  or  pronouns  referring  to  it— as  the  grammatical  subject  of 
most  of  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph? 

30.  Bring  from  your  reading  a  paragraph  constructed  on  this  plan. 

31.  Bring  from  your  own  writing  a  paragraph  of  this  type. 

32.  Rewrite  the  following  paragraphs,  and  make  one  subject 
prominent  in  each: 

The  engineer  made  all  his  preparations  for  a  fast  run. 
Orders  were  given  to  have  the  fire  under  the  boiler  raked 
and  then  supplied  with  fresh  coal.  Every  part  of  the  en- 
gine seemed  to  pass  under  the  scrutiny  of  the  engineer. 
Here  and  there  he  tightened  a  valve  or  put  in  a  drop  of  oil. 

The  Tartars  have  made  their  invasions  more  like  irrup- 
tions, inroads,  or  what  are  called  raids,  than  a  proper  con- 
quest and  occupation  of  the  comitries  which  have  been  their 
victims.  You  might  compare  them  to  a  flight  of  locusts 
or  a  swarm  of  angry  wasjis  smoked  out  of  their  nest;  for 
their  method  was  to  go  forward,  200,000  of  them  at  once, 
at  the  rate  of  100  miles  a  day.  They  would  swim  the 
rivers  and  gallop  over  the  plains.  The  excitement  of  air 
and  speed  would  intoxicate  them  as  if  it  were  a  fox-chase. 
Pride  and  fury  at  the  reverses  which  set  them  in  motion 
would  drive  them  to  seek  their  fortunes.  No  plan,  how- 
ever, would  guide  them.  Immediate  gratification  is  what 
they  would  seek,  and  the  future  might  take  care  of  itself. 
They  would  be  blood-thirsty  and  inflict  ruin  and  misery  to 
any  extent.  The  invaded  would  suffer  tenfold  more  harm 
than  they  themselves  would  benefit.  In  a  day  the  labor 
and  skill,  the  prosperity  of  years,  would  be  undone;  but 
to  conduct  a  government  and  digest  a  code  of  laws  was 
bevond  them. 


THE    PARAGRAPH  2G7 

We  started  in  the  lower  forms  by  learning  a  good  deal 
of  spelling  from  a  regular  spelling-book.  In  the  middle 
forms  the  spelling-books  were  dropped,  and  dictation  ex- 
ercises from  standard  authors  were  substituted.  Besides 
the  dictation  in  the  middle  forms,  we  also  had  short  essays 
to  write  ui3on  given  subjects;  but  there  was  no  text-book 
in  composition.  In  the  higher  forms  spelling,  dictation, 
and  essay  works  were  all  left  behind,  and  our  studies  were 
confined  almost  wholly  to  the  derivation  and  history  of  the 
words  of  the  language.  The  text-book  was  fully  illus- 
trated with  extracts  from  standard  works,  to  give  an  idea 
of  the  proportion  of  Saxon  to  Romance  words  used  by  any 
author.  There  was  now,  however,  no  practice  in  writing 
English  as  such,  though  written  answers  to  questions  on 
other  subjects  were  generally  criticised  for  clearness  of 
style.  The  construing  of  classics  was  mostly  done  in  class. 
Provided  a  boy's  translation  showed  that  he  grasped  the 
construction,  the  use  of  idiomatic  English  was  not  insisted 
upon. 

33.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  making  a  paragraph  interesting? 


CHAPTER    VTI 

THE  SENTENCE 

51.  Definition  of  the  Sentence. — A  sentence  consists 
of  subject  and  predicate  with  their  several  modifiers. 
"The  tall,  well-dressed  girl"  is  not  a  sentence  because 
there  is  no  verb,  no  predicate,  for  "girl" ;  but  the  addi- 
tion of  a  predicate,  "is  here,"  makes  the  sentence.  A 
sentence  may  be  simple,  a  single  subject  and  single 
predicate,  as  "The  girl  is  here,"  or  "The  tall,  well- 
dressed  girl  is  already  here."  It  may  be  compound, 
with  two  or  more  subjects  and  predicates,  connected  by 
conjunctions:  "The  girl  is  here,  and  she  will  stay  till 
she  has  finished  learning  a  song."  It  may  be  complex, 
with  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses  to  modify  subject 
or  predicate  or  both:  "The  girl  whom  3^ou  saw  this 
afternoon  is  practising  the  song  wliich  her  teacher  asked 
her  to  learn."  It  may  be  compound  complex:  "The 
girl  whom  you  saw  this  afternoon  is  here,  and  she  will 
stay  till  she  has  finished  the  song  which  her  teacher 
asked  her  to  learn."  All  the  foregoing  forms  are  declar- 
ative; that  is,  they  declare  something  to  be  a  fact.  A 
sentence  may  also  be  exclamatory/ :  "How  quickly  that 
girl  came  here!"  It  may  be  interrogative:  "Is  that  girl 
here  yet?"  It  may  be  imperative:  "Ask  that  girl  to 
come  here."  Whatever  the  form,  the  one  essential  is 
grammatical  completeness. 

268 


THE    SENTENCE  269 

52.  Good  Use  in  the  Sentence. — In  studying  the  sen- 
tence wo  begin  with  a  principle  upon  which  thus  far  we 
have  scarcely  touched,  good  use.  This  is  the  term  for 
that  common  consent,  or  general  practice,  which  fixes 
the  pronunciation,  spelling,  and  meaning  of  words, 
determines,  within  certain  limits,  their  order,  and  pre- 
scribes rules  of  grammar  and  punctuation.  In  words 
and  the  manner  of  combining  them  there  is,  just  as  in 
fashions  in  clothes,  a  constant  flux.  Old  words  and 
constructions  pass  out  of  current  speech,  while  new 
come  in.  When  the  weapons  and  customs  of  chivalry 
disappeared,  many  words  which  named  them  went  also ; 
when  the  steam-railway  and  the  electric  car  displaced 
the  coach  and  four,  a  new  vocabulary  crowded  out  the 
old.  Some  of  the  changes  in  vocabulary,  spelling,  sen- 
tence sti-ucture,  and  punctuation  in  the  course  of  three 
hundred  years  are  shown  by  these  two  passages : 

But  Philantus  angry  of  this  defacing  his  shield,  came 
vpon  the  blacke  Knight,  and  with  the  pomraell  of  his  sworde 
set  fire  to  his  eyes,  which  presently  was  reuenged,  not  onely 
by  the  Blacke,  but  the  ill  apparelled  Knight,  who  disdained 
another  should  enter  into  his  quarrell,  so  as,  who  euer  sawe 
a  matachin  daunce  to  imitate  fighting,  this  was  a  fight 
that  did  imitate  the  matachin ;  for  they  being  but  three 
that  fought,  euerie  one  had  aduersaries,  striking  him,  who 
strooke  the  third,  and  reuenging  perhaps  that  of  him,  which 
he  had  receaued  of  the  other.  But  Basilius  rising  him- 
selfe  to  parte  them,  the  sticklers  authoritie  scarslie  able  to 
perswade  cholerike  hearers ;  and  parte  them  he  did. — Sir 
Philip  Sidney  in  The  Countesse  of  Pembrokes  Arcadia, 
1590. 

The  strike  in  the  subway  and  on  the  elevated  began  this 
morning  at  four  o'clock.  Most  of  the  motormen  and  train- 
crews  quit  at  that  hour,  and  left  the  trains  at  the  nearest 


270  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

station.  The  leaders  of  the  strike  tried  to  get  the  men 
who  are  in  charge  of  the  engines  and  dynamos  in  the 
power-house  to  join  the  niotormen;  but  the  workers  in  the 
power-liouse,  many  of  them  skilled  electricians,  have  thus 
far  stuck  to  their  posts.  The  manager  of  the  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  Company,  which  operates  the  subway  and 
the  elevated,  at  once  began  to  fill  the  vacancies  with  "strike- 
breakers," who  had  been  hired  for  this  emergency.  Sev- 
eral hundred  of  them  had  been  brought  to  the  city  the  day 
before,  and  quartered  on  a  steamboat  lying  in  the  East 
River.  Others  were  engaged  by  telephoning  and  telegraph- 
ing to  various  employment  agencies. 

So  few  of  the  Interborough  trains  were  running  at  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning  that  the  trolley-cars  were  jammed 
with  men  and  women  on  their  way  to  business.  Nearly 
every  cab  in  the  city  was  pressed  into  service,  and  hun- 
dreds of  automobiles  joined  them  in  a  long  procession  down 
Broadway. — New  York  newspaper  of  1 905. 


A  person  who  wishes  to  be  generally  understood  must 
conform  to  tlie  principle  of  good  use;  that  is,  he  must 
see  to  it  that  his  words  and  constructions  are  in  'present 
use,  neither  obsolete  nor  so  new  as  to  have  gained  but 
little  currency ;  are  national,  not  peculiar  to  a  trade,  a 
science,  or  a  locality,  but  employed  generally  through- 
out the  country  ;  and  reputable,  used  by  the  most  careful 
writers  and  speakers. 

Obsolete  words  and  constructions,  from  the  very  fact 
that  they  are  obsolete,  offer  no  such  temptation  as  those 
which,  though  common  in  our  trade  or  locality,  are 
neither  reputable  nor  national.  Examples  of  obsolete 
spellings,  words,  and  consti'uctions  abound  in  the  quo- 
tation from  Sidney,  269.  "Matacliin"  is  no  longer 
heard  at  all,  and  "stickler"  no  longer  as  there  used. 
"Angry  of"  has  now  been  supplanted  by  "angry  at." 
Neither  of  the  sentences  is  modern  in  construction :  the 


THE   SENTENCE  271 

first  is  disjointed  and  lacks  unity;  and  the  second  con- 
tains two  subordinate  clauses,  ^'Basil'ms  rising  himselfe 
to  parte  them"  and  "the  sticklers  authoritie  scarslie  able 
to  perswade  cholerike  hearers,"  which  are  awkwardly 
connected  with  the  main  clause,  that  is,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  present  usage.  To-day,  however,  no  one  is 
likely  to  fall  into  this  style. 

Every  trade  and  science  has  its  special  vocabulary, 
which  is  not  in  national  usage.  The  following  para- 
graph is  intelligible  to  a  biologist,  but  scarcely  better 
than  Greek  to  the  rest  of  the  world: 


All  the  crayfishes  have  a  complex  gastric  armature.  The 
seven  anterior  thoracic  limbs  are  provided  with  podo- 
branchiae,  but  the  first  of  these  is  always  more  or  less  com- 
pletely reduced  to  an  epipodite.  More  or  fewer  arthro- 
branchiae  always  exist.  Pleurobranchise  may  be  present  or 
absent. — Thomas  Henry  Huxley  in  The  Crayfish. 


The  variations  of  dialect  between  North  and  South, 
East  and  West,  are  so  familiar  that  hardly  any  one 
needs  to  be  told  that  of  the  two  following  speeches  the 
first  is  by  a  New  England  rustic,  and  the  second  by  a 
Southern  negro ;  and  that  neither  accords  with  national 
usage ; 

There's  nothin'  so  sweet  an'  hulsome  as  your  real  spring 
water,  git  it  pure.  But  it's  dreffle  hard  to  git  it  that  ain't 
got  sunthin'  the  matter  of  it.  Snow-water'U  burn  a  man's 
inside  out, — I  larned  that  to  the  'Roostick  war, — and  the 
snow  lays  terrible  long  on  some  o'  thes'ere  hills.  Me  an' 
Eb  Stiles  was  up  old  Ktahdn  onct  jest  about  this  time 
o'  year,  an'  we  come  acrost  a  kind  o'  holler  like,  as  full  o' 
snow  as  your  stockin's  full  o'  your  foot.  /  see  it  fust,  an' 
took  an'  rammed  a  settin'-pole — wahl,  it  was  all  o'  twenty 


372  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

foot   into%   an'   couldn't   fin'    no   bottom. — James    Russell 
Lowell  in  A  Moosehead  Journal. 


Biineby,  one  day,  arter  Brer  Fox  bin  doin'  all  dat  he 
could  tor  ketch  Brer  Rabbit,  en  Brer  Rabbit  bin  doin'  all 
he  could  fer  to  keep  'im  fuin  it,  Brer  Fox  say  to  hisse'f 
dat  he'd  put  up  a  game  on  Brer  Rabbit,  en  he  ain't  mo'n 
got  de  wuds  out'n  his  niouf  twel  Brer  Rabbit  come  a  loj)in' 
up  de  big  road,  lookin'  des  ez  ])luinp,  en  ez  fat,  en  cz  sassy 
ez  a  Moggin  boss  in  a  barley-patch. — Joel  Chandler 
Harris  in  Uncle  Remus,  His  Songs  and  His  Sayings. 


Reputable  usage  is  often  violated  in  conversation  and 
hurried  writing.  No  one  but  the  most  illiterate  would 
say,  "I  seen  my  duty  and  I  done  it" ;  but  tlie  less  vulgar 
slang  is  so  common  that  Ave  cannot  resist  it  without 
steady  effort.  Bits  of  slang  which  are  vivacious  and 
expressive  now^  and  then  find  a  permanent  place  in  the 
language.  Such  a  phrase  as  "throwing  bouquets  at 
himself"  might  work  its  way  through  newspapers  and 
magazines  into  the  best  books ;  but  it  has  not  done  so 
yet.     It  is  not  reputable  and  is  therefore  to  be  avoided. 

Good  use  largely  determines  the  order  of  words.  In 
Greek  and  Latin  and  to  some  extent  in  French  and 
German  the  case-endings  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  ad- 
jectives and  the  conjugation  forms  of  verbs  may  show 
grammatical  relations,  regardless  of  order.  In  Latin 
Pama  culpam  sequitur  or  Scquitur  culpam  poena  or 
any  other  order  of  the  words  means  "Punishment  fol- 
lows wj'ong-doing"  ;  for  poena — ending  in  a — is  nomi- 
native, the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  ndpam — ending  In 
am — is  accusative,  the  object.  But  in  English,  from 
which  most  case-endings  have  disappeared,  the  order 
must  be  "Punishment  follows  wrong-doing";  for  "Pun- 


THE    SENTENCE  373 

Ishment  wrong-doing  follows"  Is  ambiguous,  and 
"Wrong-doing  follows  punishment"  has  a  different 
meaning.  In  longer  sentences  there  may  be  a  wider 
variation,  as  "Punishment  is  the  thing  which  follows 
wrono--doing"  or  "The  thing  which  follows  wrong- 
doing is  punishment."  Even  in  this  instance  there  are 
only  two  possible  orders,  and  a  departure  from  them  is 
either  clumsy  or  makes  nonsense.  Good  use  as  it  deter- 
mines order  will  be  further  discussed  under  the  head  of 
order. 

Good  use  as  it  prescribes  rules  of  grammar  is  treated 
fully  in  books  on  the  subject  and  need  not  be  taken 
up  here. 

PUNCTUATION 

Good  use  lays  down  at  one  and  the  same  time  rules 
for  punctuation  and  for  sentence  structure.  The  two 
are  inseparable.  The  extract  from  Sidney  or  a  passage 
from  Defoe,  for  example,  cannot  be  punctuated  accord- 
ing to  present,  national,  and  reputable  usage,  because, 
as  has  already  been  said,  it  is  not  constructed  accord- 
ing to  such  usage.  Since  modem  punctuation  has  de- 
veloped step  by  step  with  the  modern  sentence,  the  study 
of  the  one  is  the  study  of  the  other. 

Punctuation  sets  off  into  groups  the  words  which  are 
closely  joined  in  sense,  and  helps  to  show  grammatical 
relations  and  to  make  the  sentence  intelligible.  For  this 
purpose  a  comma  or  semicolon  is  by  no  means  neces- 
sary wherever  a  reader  would  naturally  make  a  short 
pause,  but  only  where  the  absence  of  punctuation  would 
result  in  ambiguity  or  obscurity.  Since  the  rules  are 
not  statements  of  inflexible  laws  but  of  general  prin- 
ciples, they  cannot  be  applied  rigidly. 


274  ENGLISU    COMPOSITION 

Tlie  pvinctuation  marks  are: 

Comma (,) 

Semicolon (;) 

Colon (:) 

Period (•) 

Interrofjation  Point (') 

Exclamation  Point (!) 

Dash (— ) 

Parentheses (  ) 

Brackets [  ] 

Quotation  Marks ("")(') 

Apostrophe (') 

Hyphen (-) 

Comma. — The  comma  marks  the  smallest  degree  of 
separation.     It  is  employed  in  the  following  cases : 

1.  After  each  of  a  series  of  more  than  two  words, 
phrases,  or  short  clauses,  except  when  all  the  conjunc- 
tions are  expressed. 

She  was  a  little,  brown,  thin,  almost  skinny,  woman,  with 
big,  rolling,  violet-blue  eyes,  and  the  sweetest  manners  in 
the  world. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt 
our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

Walpole's  new  gallery  is  all  gothicism  and  gold  and 
crimson  and  looking-glass. 

2.  To  cut  off  words  or  phrases  in  apposition,  with 
or  without  tlie  conjunction  "or." 

The  largest  room  on  the  first  floor  is  a  library,  or  study, 
with  a  huge  fire])laee  at  one  end. 

George  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  the 
leader  of  the  American  forces  in  the  Revolution. 


THE   SENTENCE  275 

The  building  on  the  left,  generally  called  the  town  hall, 
was  erected  nearly  a  century  ago. 


3.  To  cut  off  words,  phrases,  and  short  clauses  which 
are  parenthetical,  independent  of  the  grammatical  con- 
struction of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Under  this  head 
come  vocative  words,  and  words  and  phrases  like  "how- 
ever," "nevertheless,"  "in  the  first  place,"  "on  the  one 
hand,"  "I  hope,"  "you  will  note,"  when  they  break  the 
continuity  of  the  sentence. 

I  will  tell  you,  gentlemen,  what  has  been  the  practical 
error  of  the  last  twenty  years. 

You  must  not,  however,  imagine  that  my  silence  has  been 
due  to  ignorance  of  what  is  going  on. 

The  people  of  this  city,  the  men  in  particular,  are  not 
far  removed  from  the  barbarism  of  the  middle  ages. 

It  is,  I  think,  a  healthy  tendency  that  is  leading  men 
in  our  generation  to  turn  away  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  signs  and  the  contemplation  of  death. 

In  Bunyan  there  is  not  an  expression,  if  we  except  a 
few  technical  terms  of  theology,  which  would  puzzle  the 
rudest  peasant. 


4.   To  cut  off  introductory  words  and  phrases  when 
they  are  not  closely  connected  with  the  context. 

Finally,  let  us  consider  this  transaction  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  purchaser. 

To   make   a   long   story   short,   I    went   without    further 
parleying. 

Returning  to  the  subject  with  which  we  started,  I  will 
add  a  word  or  two  more. 


276  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

5.  To  set  off  words  or  phrases  which,  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis,  have  been  transposed  or  taken  out  of  their 
normal  place. 

To  those  who  labor,  sleep  is  doubly  pleasant. 
Of  two  evils,  the  less  is  always  to  be  chosen. 
Unstable  as  water,  thou  shalt  not  excel. 

6.  To  divide  a  lon^  subject — consisting  of  a  phrase 
or  a  clause — from  the  verb  of  the  predicate. 

To  have  passed  them  over  in  an  historical  sketch  of 
my  literary  life  and  opinions,  would  have  seemed  like  the 
denial  of  a  debt. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  one  science  and  a  superficial 
acquaintance  with  many,  are  not  the  same  thing. 

7.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  and 
words  and  phrases  in  pairs. 

Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my 
hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

We  therefore  commit  his  body  to  the  ground;  earth  to 
earth,  ashes  to  ashes,  dust  to  dust. 


8.  To  separate  the  elements  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  they  are  short,  simple  in  constiniction,  and  rather 
closely  connected.  When  there  is  only  one  subject  for 
both  verbs  of  a  compound  sentence,  and  the  clauses  are 
very  short  and  closely  connected,  commas  may  be  en- 
tirely omitted.  When  clauses  are  longer,  are  themselves 
broken  up  by  commas,  and  are  less  closely  connected, 
they   are  usually  separated   by   semicolons ;   but   in   the 


THE    SENTEKCE  277 

sentences  that  He  midway  between  these  two  extremes, 
the  comma  is  used. 

David  therefore  departed  thence  and  escaped  to  the  cave 
of  AduUam. 

Saul  and  Jonathan  were  lovely  and  pleasant  in  their 
lives,  and  in  their  death  they  were  not  divided. 

The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  firma- 
ment showeth  His  handiwork. 

Your  son  seems  an  amiable  young  man  of  studious 
habits,  and  there  is  every  hope,  when  he  joins  us,  of  his 
passing  his  academical  career. with  respectability  and  his 
examination  with  credit. 

Her  eyes  were  large  blue  wondering  eyes,  looking 
straight  at  you;  her  nose  was  unformed  and  snub,  and  her 
lips  were  red  and  dewy ;  she  wore  her  hair,  too,  in  little 
rows  of  curls,  which  heightened  this  appearance. 

9.  To  separate  leading  and  dependent  clauses  of  a 
complex  sentence. 

When  the  clauses  are  short  and  closely  connected, 
and  especially  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  joined 
with  the  leading  by  such  a  conjunction  as  "if,"  "when," 
"because,"  "unless,"  "after,"  or  "so  that,"  the  comma 
may  often  be  omitted  without  causing  ambiguity. 

As  the  light  beat  across  my  face  my  fore-wheels  took 
the  turf  of  a  great  still  lawn. 

The  dog  will  come  if  you  will  whistle  for  him. 

The  crux  of  Buridan's  donkey  was  as  nothing  to  the 
uncertainty  of  the  boy  as  he  handled  and  lingered  and 
doted  on  these  bundles  of  delight. 

The  wood  was  so  full  of  the  noises  of  summer  that  I 
could  not  at  first  distinguish  these  from  the  tread  of  small 
cautious  feet  stealing  across  the  dead  leaves. 


278  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

The  comma  is  generally  omitted  before  "that"  intro- 
ducing an  indirect  (juotation  or  similar  construction. 

He  says  that,  no  accidents  preventing,  he  shall  go  to 
Europe  next  summer. 

I  saw  for  the  first  time  that  she  was  heautiful. 

You  marvel  at  first  that  any  one  should  willingly  pro- 
long a  life  so  destitute  of  charm  and  dignity;  and  then 
you  call  to  memory  that  had  he  chosen,  had  he  ceased  to 
be  a  miser,  he  could  have  heen  freed  at  once  from  these 
trials. 

A  relative  clause  which  is  restrictive,  which  so  limits 
the  meaning  of  the  antecedent  as  to  be  inseparable  from 
it,  is  not  cut  off  by  commas ;  but  a  relative  clause  which 
merely  explains  or  adds,  and  which  may  be  dropped 
without  destroying  the  continuity  of  the  sentence,  is 
cut  off  by  commas. 

There  stands  a  certain  stationer's  shop  at  the  corner  of 
the  wide  thoroughfare  that  joins  the  city  of  my  childhood 
with  the  sea. 

I  now  call  upon  you  to  apply  your  mind  to  the  acquiring 
of  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  inseparable  from  an 
acquaintance  with  books. 

A  black  servant,  who  reposed  on  the  box  beside  the  fat 
coachman,  uncurled  his  legs  as  soon  as  the  equipage  drew 
up  opposite  Miss  Pinkerton's  shining  brass  plate. 

Before  this  ugly  edifice  was  a  grass-jalot,  much  over- 
grown with  burdock,  ])ig-weed,  apple-pcru,  and  such  un- 
sightly vegetation,  which  evidently  found  something  con- 
genial in  the  soil  that  had  so  early  borne  the  black  flower 
of  civilization,  a  prison. 

The  women,  of  whom  there  were  several  in  the  crowd, 
seemed  to  take  a  peculiar  interest  in  the  proceedings. 


THE  SENTENCE  279 

With  such  exceptions  as  those  above  noted,  leading 
and  subordinate  clauses  are  generally  separated  by 
commas. 

Though  the  mills  of  the  gods  grind  slowly,  yet  they 
grind  exceeding  small. 

Christianity  raises  men  from  earth,  for  it  comes  from 
heaven. 

Unless  an  elementary  knowledge  of  scientific  truths  is 
diffused  among  the  people,  they  never  know  what  is  cer- 
tain and  what  is  not,  or  who  are  entitled  to  speak  with 
authority  and  who  are  not. 

After  they  had  murmured  twenty  years  at  the  misgov- 
ernment  of  Charles  the  Second,  they  came  to  his  rescue  in 
his  extremity,  when  his  own  secretaries  of  state  and  lords 
of  the  treasury  had  deserted  him. 


10.  To  mark  an  ellipsis  in  the  sentence,  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  words. 

In  front  is  the  guardship  swinging  to  her  anchor;  be- 
hind, the  old  garden  with  the  trees. 

My    grandfather    was    born    and    bred    in    Ireland;    my 
father,  in  Massachusetts;  and  I,  in  California. 


11.  Before  or  after  a  short  direct  quotation  intro- 
duced into  the  body  of  the  sentence. 

Apparently  he  was   not  disappointed,   for   he   presently 
said,  "I  know  what  I'll  do." 

"I  thought  they  called  your  chief  Appin,"  said  I. 

"Well,"  said  I,  "what  followed.''" 


280  ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOISr 

Semicolon. — The  semicolon  marks  a  wider  separation 
than  the  conuna.     It  is  used  in  the  following  cases: 

1.  To  separate  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  they  are  long,  complex,  or  loosely  connected. 

He  is  at  home  in  any  society,  he  has  common  ground 
with  every  class ;  he  knows  when  to  speak  and  when  to  be 
silent;  he  is  able  to  converse,  he  is  able  to  listen;  he  can 
ask  a  question  pertinently  and  gain  a  lesson  seasonably, 
when  he  has  nothing  to  impart  himself;  he  is  ever  ready, 
yet  never  in  the  way;  he  is  a  pleasant  companion,  and  a 
comrade  you  can  depend  upon;  he  knows  when  to  be  seri- 
ous and  when  to  trifle,  and  he  has  a  sure  tact  which  enables 
him  to  trifle  with  gracefulness  and  to  be  serious  with  effect. 
— Cardinal  Newman  in  The  Idea  of  a  University. 


2.  To  separate  long  clauses  that  have  a  common  de- 
pendence on  a  preceding  or  following  clause. 

He  would  report  that  the  climate  was  mild;  the  hills 
were  limestone;  there  was  plenty  of  good  marble;  more 
pasture-land  than  at  first  survey  might  have  been  expected, 
sufficient  certainly  for  sheep  and  goats;  fisheries  produc- 
tive; silver  mines  once,  but  long  since  worked  out. 

If,  then,  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  this  spirit  of 
American  liberty  be  for  the  greater  part,  or  rather  entirely, 
impracticable;  if  the  ideas  of  criminal  process  be  inap- 
plicable, or  if  applicable,  are  in  the  highest  degree  inex- 
pedient; what  way  yet  remains? 


3.  Before  such  words  as  "as,"  "namely,"  "to  wit," 
"viz.,"  and  "e.  g.,"  when  they  are  followed  by  several 
examples  and  illustrations. 

The  trouble  with  these  houses  arises  from  causes  that 
may    generally    be    avoided;    viz.,    unscientific    construction, 


THE   SENTENCE  281 

plaster  ceilings,  want  of  provision  for  partial  wear,  abuse 
of  paint,  and  hidden  work. 

Colon. — The  colon  marks  a  wider  separation  than  the 
semicolon.     It  is  used  as  follows : 

1.  To  separate  two  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  the  second  is  in  a  sort  of  apposition  to  the  first, 
repeating  the  idea  in  other  words  or  adding  definition, 
explanation,  illustration,  or  specification. 

The  House  has  gone  farther:  it  has  declared  conciliation 
admissible,  previous  to  any  submission  on  the  part  of 
America. 

The  capital  leading  questions  on  which  you  must  this 
day  decide  are  these  two:  first,  whether  you  ought  to  con- 
cede ;  and  secondW,  what  your  concession  ought  to  be. 

This,  then,  is  the  plastic  part  of  literature:  to  embody 
character,  thought,  or  emotion  in  some  act  or  attitude  that 
shall  be  remarkably  striking  to  the  mind's  eye. 

2.  Before  a  long  quotation,  formally  introduced,  and 
often  beginning  a  new  paragraph. 

I  propose  the  following  resolution: 

"That,  from  the  time  when  the  general  assembly,  or 
general  court,  etc." 

Period. — The  period  marks  a  full  stop.  It  is  placed 
at  the  ends  of  sentences  and  after  such  abbreviations 
as  "Mr.,"  "Mrs.,"  "LL.  D.,"  "B.  C,"  and  "N.  Y." 

Interrogation  Point. — The  interrogation  point  should 
follow  every  direct  question. 

What  is  man  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ? 


282  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

Exclamation  Point. — The  exclamation  point  indicates 
strong  emotion.  It  follows  exclamatory  words,  phrases, 
and  sentences. 

Up!  up!  my  friend,  and  quit  your  books. 

Glass  of  brandy  and  water!  That  is  the  current  but 
not  the  appropriate  name;  ask  for  a  glass  of  liquid  fire 
and  distilled  damnation ! 

Dash. — The  dash  indicates  a  break  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence. 

There  were  no  books,  no  music,  and  only  a  few  news- 
papers in  sight — a  bare,  blank,  cold,  drab-colored  shelter 
from  the  rain,  not  a  home. 

The  frozen  eyelids,  the  darkness  that  seemed  to  steal 
from  beneath  them,  the  marble  lips,  the  stiffening  hands, 
laid  palm  to  palm  as  if  repeating  the  supplications  of 
closing  anguish — could  these  be  mistaken  for  life.'' 

The  twisted  girders,  the  thick  iron  plates  torn  from  their 
rivets  and  bent  about  as  if  they  had  been  made  of  paste- 
board, the  iron  cables  snapped  as  if  they  had  been  so  many 
watch-chains — all  this  spoke  of  a  frightful  combat  with 
the  elements. 

Dashes  sometimes  cut  off  a  parenthetical  phrase  or 
clause.  They  denote  wider  separation  than  commas,  but 
not  so  wide  as  parentheses. 

Above,  hanging  like  cliffs  over  the  streets — those  nar- 
row, brawling  torrents  of  filth  and  poverty  and  sin — the 
houses  with  their  teeming  load  of  life  were  piled  up  into 
a  dingy,  choking  night. 

Parentheses. — Parentheses  cut  off  an  explanatory 
word,  phrase,  or  clause,  thrust  into  the  sentence  but 
not  grammatically  dependent  upon  it. 


THE   SENTENCE  283 

I  was  just  well  into  the  story  of  the  Hunchback,  I  remem- 
ber, when  my  clergyman-grandfather  (a  man  we  counted 
pretty  stiiF)   came  in  behind  me. 

Brackets. — Brackets  enclose  corrections,  comments, 
and  explanations  inserted  by  another  person  than  the 
original  writer. 

He  [the  dog]  is  vainer  than  man,  singularly  greedy  of 
notice,  singularly  intolerant  of  ridicule,  suspicious  like  the 
deaf,  jealous  to  the  degree  of  frenzy,  and  radically  devoid 
of  truth. 


Quotation  Marks. — Words  quoted  exactly  are  enclosed 
in  quotation  marks. 

"No,  no,"  said  Christopher,  "I'll  pay  every  shilling." 
He  gave  one  gulp  and  hurried  away. 

When  the  quotation  contains  more  than  one  para- 
graph, the  marks  are  put  at  the  beginning  of  each 
paragraph  and  at  the  end  of  the  last. 

"The  night  had  begun  to  fall  as  I  got  close;  and  in 
three  of  the  lower  windows,  which  were  very  high  up  and 
narrow  and  well  barred,  the  changing  light  of  a  little  fire 
began  to  glimmer. 

"Was  this  the  palace  I  had  been  coming  to?  Was  it 
within  these  walls  that  I  was  to  seek  new  friends  and  begin 
great  fortunes  ?  Why,  in  my  father's  house  on  Essen- 
Waterside,  the  fire  and  the  bright  lights  would  show  a 
mile  away,  and  the  door  open  to  a  beggar's  knock." — 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson  in  Kidnapped. 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  enclosed  in  single 
marks,  while  the  double  are  kept  unchanged. 

"But  now  our  time  of  truce  was  come  to  an  end.  Those 
on  deck  had  waited  for  my  coming  till  they  grew  impa- 


284  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

tient;  and  scarce  had  Alan  spoken  when  the  captain  showed 
face  in  the  open  door. 

"  'Stand  !'  cried  Alan,  and  pointed  liis  sword  at  him. 

"The  captain  stood,  indeed;  but  he  neither  winced  nor 
drew  back  a  foot. 

"'A  naked  sword?'  says  he.  'This  is  a  strange  return 
for  hospitality.'  " 

Apostrophe. — The  apostrophe  denotes  the  intentional 
omission  of  a  letter  or  letters. 

Don't  come  till  ten  o'clock. 

The  apostrophe  followed  by  s  denotes  the  possessive 
case  of  a  singular  noun ;  not  followed  by  s,  the  posses- 
sive of  a  plural.  When  a  proper  noun  ends  in  s,  the 
possessive  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  another  s 
after  the  apostrophe. 

The  man's  pen  is  lying  on  that  copy  of  Dickens's  David 
Copperfield. 

The  boys'  caps  are  all  hanging  in  the  cloak-room. 

Hyphen. — The  hyphen  separates  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word. 

53.  Unity  of  the  Sentence. — The  sentence,  like  the 
whole  composition  and  the  paragraph,  has  a  unity  of 
its  own.  A  sentence  is  a  unit  when  it  contains  one 
leading  thought  with  its  closely  related  modifiers.  The 
sins  against  unity  are  putting  in  too  little  or  too  much. 

A  clause  which  is  grammatically  incomplete — a  sub- 
ject without  a  predicate  or  a  predicate  without  a 
subject — obviously  contains  too  little.  The  clause,  "A 
man  who  is  one  of  the  most  public-spirited  citizens  of 


THE   SENTENCE  285 

the  town,"  needs  a  predicate,  like  "is  now  mayor,"  to 
complete  it  and  make  a  unit.  But  grammatically  com- 
plete sentences  may  also  lack  unity.  Each  of  the  four 
short  sentences  printed  below  contains  too  little:  each 
supplies  but  a  fragment  of  the  one  leading  idea  with  its 
modifiers,  which,  as  is  shown  in  the  second  column,  may 
be  knit  into  a  single  unitary  sentence. 

I,  on  my  part,  clambered  I,  on  my  part,  clambered 
up  into  the  berth.  I  carried  up  into  the  berth  with  an 
an  armful  of  pistols.  My  armful  of  pistols  and  some- 
heart  was  somewhat  heavy.  thing  of  a  heavy  hearty  and 
I  set  open  the  window  where  set  open  the  window  where 
I  was  to  watch.  I  was  to  watch. 

The  four  independent  sentences  unduly  emphasize 
ideas  which  deserve  nothing  more  than  a  phrase  or  a 
clause.  Occasionally,  however,  a  fact  that  can  be  set 
forth  in  two  or  three  words  is  significant  enough  for  a 
sentence  by  itself,  as  in  the  following  extract : 

At  first  nine  were  for  acquitting  and  three  for  convict- 
ing. Two  of  the  minority  soon  gave  way;  but  Arnold  was 
obstinate.  Thomas  Austin,  a  country  gentleman  of  great 
estate,  who  had  paid  close  attention  to  the  evidence  and 
speeches,  and  had  taken  full  notes,  wished  to  argue  the 
question.     Arnold  declined. 

"Arnold  declined"  is  much  more  emphatic  as  a  sepa- 
rate sentence  than  as  a  mere  clause:  "When  Thomas 
Austin,  a  country  gentleman  of  great  estate,  who  had 
paid  close  attention  to  the  evidence  and  speeches,  and 
had  taken  full  notes,  wished  to  argue  the  question, 
Arnold  declined.''''  Unless  emphasis  is  desired,  subordi- 
nate ideas,  when  briefly  expressed,  should  be  relegated 
to  modifying  phrases  and  clauses.     To  place  them  in 


286 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


separate  sentences,  as   below,  violates  the  principle  of 
unity : 


WRONG 

The  king  was  a  man  of 
understanding.  He  knew 
the  wonderful  secrets  pos- 
sessed by  the  Arabs.  He 
was  inspired  with  hope  by 
the  confident  language  of 
the  prince. 

The  windows  were  dark- 
ened. The  reason  was  that 
the  princess  lay  within.  She 
was  a  prey  to  a  devouring 
grief.  It  refused  all  al- 
leviation. 

Leaning  against  the  wall 
near  the  window  stood  the 
young  king.  Two  or  three 
youths  were  beside  him. 
They  were  laughing  and 
talking  over  three  great 
deer-hounds.  By  the  hearth 
were  two  elder  men. 


RIGHT 

The  king,  who  was  a  man 
of  understanding,  and  knew 
the  wonderful  secrets  pos- 
sessed by  the  Arabs,  was 
inspired  with  hope  by  the 
confident  language  of  the 
prince. 

The  windows  were  dark- 
ened, for  the  princess  lay 
within,  a  prey  to  a  devour- 
ing grief  that  refused  all 
alleviation. 


Leaning  against  the  wall 
near  the  window  stood  the 
young  king  with  two  or 
three  youths  beside  him, 
laughing  and  talking  over 
three  great  deer-hounds,  and 
by  the  hearth  were  two  elder 
men. 


The  second  violation  of  the  principle  of  unity  is 
putting  in  too  much.  The  surplus  may  be  in  the  form 
either  of  ideas  which  are  not  related  to  the  main  sub- 
ject or  of  too  many  subordinate  clauses.  The  following 
sentences  lack  unity  because  there  is  no  vital  connection 
between  the  facts  in  the  several  clauses: 

The  woman  who  was  run  over  by  an  automobile  on  Sixth 
Avenue  yesterday  died  at  the  Roosevelt  Hospital,  which  is 
now  undergoing  repairs. 

Among  the  gifts  to  the  bride  were  some  silver  candle- 
sticks,   which    were    a    present    from    her    uncle,    who    has 


THE   SENTENCE  287 

recently  returned  from   six   months   in   Europe,  where  his 
daughters  are  now  studying  music. 

As  the  ship  was  entering  the  dock,  a  passenger  was 
seized  with  a  fainting  fit;  and  most  of  the  people  in  the 
steerage  were  Syrians. 

Whenever  I  go  to  New  York,  I  am  amazed  at  the  crowded 
condition  of  Broadway,  and  I  usually  take  at  least  one 
square  meal  at  the  old  Astor  House. 

In  these  sentences  the  want  of  connection  between  the 
ideas  is  evident  at  a  glance.  In  still  other  sentences  all 
the  clauses  may  hold  some  relation  to  the  main  idea, 
and  the  only  trouble  may  be  tliat  there  are  too  many. 
If  a  sentence  be  too  long  to  be  easily  read  aloud,  it  is 
generally  overcrowded,  violates  the  principle  of  unity, 
and  should  be  cut  down.  The  following  examples  ex- 
hibit the  fault  and  the  remedy: 

WRONG  RIGHT 

This  was  so  great  a  dis-  This  was  so  great  a  dis- 
appointment that  we  felt  we  appointment  that  we  felt  we 
could  not  really  obey,  though  could  not  really  obey,  though 
we  well  knew  the  conse-  we  well  knew  the  conse- 
quences of  disobedience,  our  quences  of  disobeying  our 
parents  being  strong  in  dis-  parents,  who  were  strong  in 
cipline;  and  without  a  word  discipline.  Without  a  word 
we  stood  around,  watched  we  stood  around,  watched 
our  chance,  and  secreted  our  chance,  and  secreted 
ourselves  under  the  wagon  ourselves  under  the  wagon 
on  the  large  brake-beam,  on  the  large  brake-beam, 
making  ourselves  more  se-  There  we  made  ourselves 
cure  by  the  aid  of  different  more  secure  by  the  aid  of 
portions  of  the  running  gear  different  parts  of  the  run- 
near  us.  ning  gear  near  us. 

A  third  of  the  population  Honolulu,  which  contains 

is    in    Honolulu,    a    modern  a  third  of  the  population,  is 

city   in   every   sense   of   the  a  modern  city  in  every  sense 

word,  having  its  telephones,  of  the  word,  with  telephones, 


288 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


electric  cars,  boulevards,  and 
parks,  like  any  other  Amer- 
ican city,  and  with  a  pojju- 
lation  probably  more  cosmo- 
politan than  a  mainland  city, 
containing,  in  addition  to 
the  predominant  numbers  of 
natives,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Portuguese,  and  Americans, 
representatives  of  a  very 
great  many  nationalities 
from  all  over  the  world. 

Subsequent  to  the  Black 
Hawk  war  Keokuk  removed 
with  his  tribe  from  Iowa  to 
the  Territory  of  Kansas, 
where  he  died  in  184-8;  and 
over  his  grave  was  placed  a 
marble  slab,  which  marked 
his  place  of  burial  till  1883, 
when  the  remains  were  ex- 
humed and  taken  to  Keokuk 
and  interred  in  the  city 
park,  where  a  durable  monu- 
ment was  erected  by  public- 
spirited  citizens  to  designate 
the  final  resting-place  of 
the  noted  chieftain. 


electric  cars,  boulevards,  and 
parks,  like  any  other  Amer- 
ican city.  The  population 
is  probably  more  cosmopoli- 
tan than  in  a  mainland  city; 
for,  in  addition  to  the  pre- 
dominant numbers  of  na- 
tives, Chinese,  Japanese, 
Portuguese,  and  Americans, 
there  are  representatives  of 
many  nations  from  all  over 
the  world. 

Subsequent  to  the  Black 
Hawk  war  Keokuk  removed 
with  his  tribe  from  Iowa  to 
the  Territory  of  Kansas, 
where  he  died  in  1 848. 
Over  his  grave  was  placed 
a  marble  slab  which  marked 
the  place  till  1883.  Then 
the  remains  were  exhumed, 
taken  to  Keokuk,  and  in- 
terred in  the  city  park, 
where  a  durable  monument, 
erected  by  public  -  spirited 
citizens,  designates  the  final 
resting-place  of  the  noted 
chieftain. 


Tlie  mere  principle  of  unity,  however,  does  not  alone 
fix  the  length  of  the  sentence.  In  an  agreeable  style 
sentences  vary — some  long,  some  short,  some  medium; 
and  for  the  sake  of  this  variety  one  may  sometimes 
break  up  a  long  sentence  that  is  really  a  unit,  or  con- 
solidate two  sliort  ones  that  might  othenvise  remain 
separate.     The  object   is  to  avoid  monotony. 

54.  Order  in  the  Sentence — The  order  of  words  in  a 
sentence  is  in  many  cases  determined  by  good  use. 
Every  language  has  its  peculiar  collocations  of  words 


THE   SENTENCE  289 

and  grammatical  constructions,  that  is,  its  idioms.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Enghsh  idiom  the  adjective  commonly 
precedes  the  noun:  we  say  "an  honest  man,"  while  the 
French  idiom  is  wn  homme  honnete.  We  usually  put 
the  direct  object  after  the  verb:  "I  will  pay  him,"  not, 
as  in  German,  Ich  werde  ihn  bezahlen — "I  will  him  pay." 
In  such  simple  cases,  where  there  is  really  no  choice 
between  different  orders,  no  person  whose  native  tongue 
is  English  can  go  far  astray.  His  ear  or  eye  at  once 
detects  a  departure  from  idiomatic  order. 

When  there  is  more  than  one  possible  order,  clear- 
ness requires  that  words  grammatically  related  shall  be 
placed  together.  The  rule  is  violated  in  the  following 
sentence:  "Lord  Tennyson  was  a  celebrated  poet  who 
wrote  many  beautiful  poems  with  long  hair."  The 
phrase  "with  long  hair"  belongs  grammatically  with 
"poet"  not  "poems" :  "Lord  Tennyson  was  a  celebrated 
poet  with  long  hair  who  wrote  many  beautiful  poems." 
In  this  latter  version  "who"  is  separated  from  its  ante- 
cedent, "poet,"  but  that  separation  is  less  awkward 
than  the  other.  In  the  infinitive  the  "to"  should  seldom 
be  separated  from  the  verb  by  an  adverb  or  adverbial 
phrase.  Thus  "to  run  easily"  is  better  than  "to  easily 
run,"  and  "to  climb  with  difficulty"  better  than  "to 
with  difficulty  climb."  Examples  of  the  awkward  sepa- 
ration of  related  words  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely : 

One  could  see  that  the  kettle  had  been  scoured  with  half 
an  eye. 

He  came  here  in  order  to  teach  school  from  New  York. 

He  closed  the  door  and  went  upstairs  with  a  slam. 

He  gulped  down  a  glass  of  water  boiling  with  rage. 


290 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


Not  only  must  words  and  phrases  that  are  gram- 
matically related  be  placed  together,  but  clauses  should 
be  put  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they 
qualify.  The  advertisement,  "Wanted — A  boy  to  de- 
liver fish  that  can  ride  a  wheel"  is  nonsensical  because 
the  relative  clause,  "that  can  ride  a  wheel,"  is  separated 
from  the  word  which  it  qualifies,  "boy,"  and  placed 
next  to  "fish."  The  same  fault  is  observed  in  the  fol- 
lowin";  sentences : 


WRONG 

In  the  light  of  my  col- 
lege experience  I  should  say 
that  what  my  preparatory 
training  in  English  should 
have  given  me  was  a  rea- 
sonable amount  of  fluency 
in  expressing  myself  on  sub- 
jects wholly  within  ray  un- 
derstanding, but  did  not. 


RIGHT 

In  the  light  of  my  col- 
lege experience  I  should  say 
tliat  what  my  preparatory 
tr.-iiiiing  in  P^nglish  should 
have  given  me,  but  did  not, 
was  reasonahle  fluency  in 
expressing  myself  on  sub- 
jects wholly  within  my  un- 
derstanding;. 


The  students  organized  a 
literary  society,  who  felt 
greatly  the  lack  of  the  Eng- 
lish department. 


The  students,  who  felt 
greatly  the  lack  of  the  Eng- 
lish department,  organized 
a  literary  society. 


I  did  not  go  then  because 
my  sister  was  detained  by 
some  work  she  had  not  fin- 
ished, although  I  was  ready 
to  start. 


Although  I  was  ready  to 
start,  I  did  not  go  then  be- 
cause my  sister  was  detained 
by  some  work  she  had  not 
finished. 


I  made  up  my  mind  that 
I  would  persevere  until  I 
had  crossed  the  ridge  and 
reached  the  stream  in  the 
valley  five  miles  beyond, 
whatever  the  difficulty. 


I  made  up  my  mind  that, 
whatever  the  difficulty,  I 
would  persevere  until  I 
had  crossed  the  ridge  and 
reached  the  stream  in  the 
valley  five  miles  beyond. 


THE   SENTENCE  291 

When  one  order  of  words  is  as  clear  and  as  easy 
to  read  as  another,  something  besides  clearness  must 
be  considered  in  deciding  between  them,  and  that  some- 
thing is  emphasis.  As  the  beginning  and  the  end  of 
the  paragraph  are  the  proper  places  for  important 
sentences,  so  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence— or  of  the  longer  clauses  in  it — are  the  places 
for  important  words.  A  comparison  of  the  two  fol- 
lowing versions  will  show  the  effect  of  arrangement  for 
emphasis : 

When  an  association  aban-  When  an  association  aban- 
dons the  object  for  which  dons  the  object  for  which 
it  is  formed,  it  is  to  all  in-  it  is  formed,  it  is  dead  to 
tents  and  purposes  dead.  all  intents  and  purposes. 

Each  is  perfectly  clear,  but  "dead"  is  more  important 
than  "intents  and  purposes"  and  therefore  goes  to  the 
end.  In  the  sentence,  "The  floor  of  the  hall  was  strewn 
with  dead  bodies,  the  walls  were  spattered  with  blood, 
and  there  was  a  general  air  of  disorder,"  there  is  an 
anticlimax.  "A  general  air  of  disorder"  is  so  trivial 
as  to  be  superfluous ;  "walls  spattered  with  blood"  is 
worth  including  in  the  description ;  and  "the  floor  strewn 
with  dead  bodies"  is  the  important  phrase,  to  be  saved 
for  the  end.  In  general  those  phrases  which  we  may 
call  semi-parenthetical,  such  as  "I  think,"  "I  suppose," 
"I  imagine,"  "it  may  be,"  "it  is  possible,"  and  "it  seems 
to  me,"  are  not  important  enough  for  either  a  begin- 
ning or  an  ending.  "The  plan  is  impracticable,  accord- 
ing to  my  view"  is  less  emphatic  than  "The  plan, 
according  to  my  view,  is  impracticable."  In  the  fol- 
lowing examples  the  order  is  changed  so  as  to  bring 


292 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


important  words,  sometimes  at  the  beginning  and  some- 
times at  the  end,  as  may  be  convenient : 


WRONG 

The  man  who  acts  in  this 
way  is  a  cheat,  to  say  the 
least. 

These  essays  were  cor- 
rected by  the  teacher  and 
handed  back  to  us  to  be  re- 
written, in  most  cases. 


It     is     sad     news 
comes  from  Boston. 


which 


There  is  very  little  which 
can  be  done  for  a  man  who 
is  too  lazy  to  work,  as  every- 
body testifies. 

I  do  not  think  I  had 
enough  training  in  writing 
English  when  I  was  in 
school. 

It  is  impossible  to  accept 
such  a  view  as  that. 

I  always  find  writing  a 
distasteful  task. 

He  makes  friends  wher- 
ever he  goes. 


The  man  who  acts  in  this 
way  is,  to  say  the  least,  a 
cheat. 

These  essays  were  cor- 
rected by  the  teacher  and  in 
most  cases  handed  back  to 
us  to  be  rewritten. 

Sad  news  comes  from 
Boston. 

Little  can  be  done  for  a 
man  who,  as  everybody  tes- 
tifies, is  too  lazy  to  work. 


When  I  was  in  school,  I 
had  not,  I  think,  enough 
training  in  writing  English. 

To  accept  such  a  view  is 
impossible. 

Writing  I  always  find  a 
distasteful  task. 


Wherever      he 
makes   friends. 


goes 


he 


My    motives    were    good.  However    mistaken    my 

however  mistaken  my  meth-      methods,    my    motives    were 
ods  may  have  been.  good. 

An   effective  beginning   is    frequently   the   connective 
word  or  phrase  which  refers  to  the  preceding  sentence. 


THE    SENTENCE 


293 


In  the  following  examples  the  sentences  in  the  second 
column  are  arranged  on  this  plan : 


His  chief  pleasures  are 
eating  and  drinking.  We 
must  regard  these  as  mere 
physical  enjoyments. 

I  hope  to  reach  the  city 
by  ten  in  the  morning.  I 
shall  finish  my  errands  by 
noon  in  that  case. 

The  sun  set  behind  a 
bank  of  cloud.  A  man  ap- 
peared at  the  mouth  of  the 
cave  as  the  light  died  out  in 
the  west. 


His  chief  pleasures  are 
eating  and  drinking.  These 
we  must  regard  as  mere 
physical  enjoyments. 

I  hope  to  reach  the  city 
by  ten  in  the  morning.  In 
that  case  I  shall  finish  my 
errands  by  noon. 

The  sun  set  behind  a 
bank  of  cloud.  As  the  light 
died  out  in  the  west  a  man 
appeared  at  the  mouth  of 
the  cave. 


He  had  not   gone  a  mile  He   had  not  gone  a   mile 

before  he  came  to  a  spring.  before  he  came  to  a  spring. 

He  said,  "This  is  the  place  "This,"     he     said,     "is     the 

I  am  looking  for."  place  I  am  looking  for." 

Emphasis  may  sometimes  be  gained  by  transposing  a 
word  or  phrase  from  the  normal  order.  In  the  sentence 
"I  am  sure  of  that,"  "that,"  although  at  the  end,  is 
not  so  emphatic  as  when  placed  out  of  the  usual  order, 
at  the  beginning,  "That  I  am  sure  of."  The  following 
sentences  show  the  effect  of  transposition: 


UNEMPHATIC 


I    owe    my    education    to 
my  father. 


EMPHATIC 


To  my  father  I  owe  my 
education. 

My  education  I  owe  to 
my  father. 


This  city  needs  broad  and  This     city    needs     streets 

well  lighted  streets.  broad  and  well  lighted. 


294  EN"GLISH   COMPOSinON 

UNEMPHATIC  EMPHATIC 

I    earned   that   money   by  That  money   I   earned  by 

hard  work.  hard  work. 

By    hard   work    1    earned 
that  money. 

The  last  point  under  order  of  words  is  the  difference 
between  a  loose  sentence  and  a  periodic.  In  a  loose  sen- 
tence a  full  stop  can  be  placed  somewhere  before  the 
end,  and  the  construction  still  be  grammatically  com- 
plete; in  a  periodic,  the  construction  and  the  meaning 
are  completed  only  with  the  last  word.  "I  met  Smith 
when  I  was  going  down  Broadway  to-day"  is  loose 
because  the  sentence  might  end  with  "Broadway"  or 
"Smith"  and  still  make  complete  sense.  "I  met  Smith" 
or  "I  met  Smith  when  I  was  going  down  Broadway" 
might  stand  as  a  sentence  by  itself.  "When  I  was 
going  down  Broadway  to-day  I  met  Smith"  is  periodic 
because  a  stop  anywhere  before  "Smith"  leaves  the  sense 
incomplete.  "When  I  was  going  down  Broadway"  is 
not  a  sentence:  another  clause  is  needed  to  complete  the 
construction  and  the  meaning.  The  following  examples 
show  the  two  forms : 

LOOSE  PERIODIC 

The  snow  turned  to  rain  ||  The     next     morning     the 

the  next  morning.  snow  turned  to  rain. 

The  luncheon  bell  rang  ||  Wlien    the    luncheon    bell 

and    they    all    went    to    the       rang   they   all    went   to   the 
dining-room.  dining-room. 

Mr.  Edmonstone  came  in  ||  When  luncheon  was  near- 

when    luncheon    was    nearly  ly    over,    Mr.     Edmonstone, 

over,  II   rejoicing  ||   that  his  rejoicing     that     his     letters 

letters  were  done.  were  done,  came  in. 


THE   SENTEKCE 


295 


Poor  little  Amy  regretted 
being  obliged  to  refuse,  || 
as  she  listened  to  the  merry 
sounds  II  and  bouncing  balls. 


Charles  was  well  princi- 
pled II  at  bottom  ||  and  would 
have  given  the  money  || 
gladly. 

He  was  a  proud  and  pas- 
sionate man  ||  and  he  re- 
sented  Sir  Guy's   refusal. 

This  course  of  action  en- 
abled him  to  conciliate  his 
enemies  ||  and  also  to  assist 
his  friends. 


PERIODIC 

Poor  little  Amy,  as  she 
listened  to  the  merry  sounds 
and  bouncing  balls,  re- 
gretted being  obliged  to  re- 
fuse. 

Charles,  who  was  well 
principled  at  bottom,  would 
gladly  have  given  the 
money. 

Proud  and  passionate  as 
he  was,  he  resented  Sir 
Guy's  refusal. 

This  course  of  action  en- 
abled him  not  only  to  con- 
ciliate his  enemies  but  to 
assist  his  friends. 


Latin  and  Gennan  sentences,  with  the  verb  generally 
at  the  end,  are  likely  to  be  periodic;  English  sentences, 
with  the  verb  generally  before  the  object,  are  likely  to 
be  loose.  For  the  sake  of  variety,  therefore,  it  is  well 
to  make  some  of  the  sentences  periodic.  When  the 
periodic  form  does  not  sound  stilted,  when  it  is  as  clear 
and  emphatic  as  the  loose,  it  may  very  properly  be  used. 
With  these  limitations  there  is  little  or  no  danger  that 
one's  style  will  become  too  periodic. 

55.  Proportion  in  the  Sentence. — The  principle  of  pro- 
portion as  applied  to  the  sentence  requires  that  no  idea 
shall  be  allotted  more  or  less  words  than  its  importance 
justifies.  The  sentence  "I  want  an  apple"  is  clear;  but 
if  need  be,  the  idea  may  be  emphasized  by  using  more 
words :  "I  want  an  apple  very  much,"  "The  thing  which 
I  want  is  an  apple,"  or  "The  thing  which  I  want  very 


296 


E2SGL1S1I    COMFOsilTlON 


much  is  an  apple."  llarclj,  however,  does  any  occasion 
arise  for  adding  words.  The  coninion  fault,  against 
which  all  writers,  experienced  and  inexperienced,  must 
struggle,  is  not  conciseness  but  wordiness.  The  follow- 
ing sentences,  for  example,  are  disproportioned  in  that 
for  certain  ideas  more  words  are  used  than  necessary : 


I  enjoy  reading  a  passage 
that  puts  forth  a  thought  in 
a  concise  form,  so  that  the 
reader  must  understand  it 
in  the  way  the  writer  in- 
tends it  to  be  understood. 


I  enjoy  reading  a  passage 
that  is  clear  and  concise. 


Since  I  have  had  no  ex- 
perience in  newspaper  work, 
I  feel  that  I  must  make  up 
to  some  extent  my  deficien- 
cies in  this  essential  require- 
ment of  a  writer's  education. 


Since  I  have  had  no  ex- 
perience in  newspaper  work, 
I  must  make  up  my  deficien- 
cies in  this  respect. 


My  English  work  before 
last  year  does  not  play  a 
very  important  part  in  my 
present  status,  except  prob- 
ably as  a  preliminary  for 
what  followed  in  my  direct 
preparation. 

As  I  think  of  it  now  I 
am  alarmed  to  think  how 
little  attention  was  paid  to 
English  at  school,  and,  what 
is  more,  I  hold  this  lack  of 
attention  to  be  particularly 
prevalent  in  private  schools, 
which  simply  put  enough 
into  a  fellow,  and  barely 
enough  at  that,  to  insure  his 
getting  into  college. 


My  English  work  before 
last  year  is  not  important 
except  as  a  preliminary  to 
my  direct  preparation. 


I  am  alarmed  to  think 
how  little  attention  was  paid 
to  English  at  school,  par- 
ticularly at  private  schools, 
which  put  barely  enough 
into  a  fellow  to  get  him  into 
college. 


THE   SENTENCE  297 

The  only  way  to  eliminate  this  surplusage  in  one  or 
more  parts  of  the  sentence  is  to  go  through  the  first 
draft,  rigorously  cutting  out  every  superfluous  word 
and  phrase. 

56.  Clearness  in  the  Sentence. — Several  of  the  meth- 
ods of  giving  clearness  to  the  paragraph  are  equally 
serviceable  in  the  sentence.  The  parallel  construction 
may  be  emploj'cd  more  freely  than  in  the  paragraph ; 
for  since  the  sentence  is  shorter,  the  repetition  of  the 
form  is  less  monotonous.  Each  of  the  two  following 
sentences  contains  parallel  constructions,  but  at  the  same 
time  there  is  variety  because  the  sentences  themselves  are 
not  parallel : 

All  things  are  now  to  be  learned  at  once,  not  first  one 
thing,  then  another,  not  one  well,  but  many  badly.  Learn- 
ing is  to  be  without  exertion,  without  attention,  without 
toil;  without  grounding,  without  advance,  without  finishing. 

The  parallel  construction  is  not  suitable  for  a  col- 
loquial style,  for  people  seldom  talk  in  clauses  that  are 
carefully  thought  out.  But  in  the  more  formal  parts 
of  narration  and  description,  as  well  as  exposition  and 
argumentation,  short  parallels  indicate  clearly  the  re- 
lation of  similar  ideas.  The  following  sentences  are 
typical : 

Each  has  its  narrow  strip  of  fertile  meadow,  its  crystal 
trout-stream  winding  across  and  across  from  one  hill-foot 
to  the  other ;  its  gray  stone  mill,  with  the  water  sparkling 
and  humming  round  the  dripping  wheel ;  its  dark  rock  pools 
above  the  tide  mark,  where  the  salmon-trout  gather  in  from 
their  Atlantic  wanderings,  after  each  autumn  flood ;  its 
ridge  of  blown  sand,  bright  with  golden  trefoil  and  crim- 
son lady's  finger;  its  gray  bank  of  polished  pebbles,  down 
which  the  stream  rattles  toward  the  sea  below. — Charles 
KiNGSLEY  in   Westward  Ho! 


298  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

We  love  to  see  a  wag  tast^  his  own  joke  to  his  party; 
to  watch  a  quirk  or  a  merry  conceit  flickering  upon  the 
lips  some  seconds  before  the  tongue  is  delivered  of  it.  If 
it  be  good,  fresh,  and  racy — begotten  of  the  occasion;  if 
he  that  utters  it  never  thought  it  before,  he  is  naturally 
the  first  to  be  tickled  with  it,  and  any  suppression  of  such 
complacence  we  hold  to  be  churlish  and  insulting. — Charles 
Lamb  in  Essays  of  Elia. 

Until  that  street  architecture  o^"  ours  is  bettered,  imtil 
we  give  it  some  size  and  boldness,  until  we  give  our  win- 
dows recess  and  our  walls  tliickjuss,  I  know  not  how  we 
can  blame  our  architects  for  their  feebleness  in  more  im- 
portant work. — John  Ruskin  in  The  Seven  Lamps  of 
Architecture. 

The  rule  for  parallel  constructions  is  violated  in  the 
three  following  sentences : 

He    exhorted    her    to    re-  He  exhorted  her  to  repent 

pentance  and  to  confess  her       and  confess  her  sins, 
sins. 

She  now  heard  of  a  plan  She  now  heard  that  there 

to  take  her  child  away  from  was  a  \Aai\  to  take  her  child 

her    and   that   the    governor  away  from  her  and  that  the 

approved.  governor  approved. 

In  Maxcy  Hall  a  fire  In  Maxcy  Hall  a  fire 
broke  out,  destructive  but  broke  out,  which  was  de- 
which  furnished  the  stu-  structive  but  which  fur- 
dents  with  many  subjects  nished  the  students  with 
for  themes.  many  subjects   for  themes. 

Careless  writers,  ajiparcntly  iiitendinj^  a  parallel  con- 
struction, occasionally  insert  a  superfluous  "and"  or 
"but"  before  a  relative  clause,  as  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

This  morning  I  began  to  write  a  theme,  but  which  I 
never  finished. 

He  is  a  good  man  and  in  whom  every  one  has  confidence. 


THE   SENTENCE  299 

In   each   instance  the   conjunction    should   be   stricken 
out. 

The  sentence  on  page  297,  beginning  "  All  things," 
contains  a  special  form  of  parallel  construction  known 
as  antithesis,  the  setting  of  one  idea  against  another. 
This  form,  by  balancing  one  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
against  another,  brings  out  more  forcibly  the  contrast: 

It  is  the  age  that  forms  the  man,  not  the  man  that 
forms  the  age.  Great  minds  do  indeed  react  on  the  society 
which  has  made  them  what  they  are;  but  they  only  pay 
with  interest  what  they  have  received. 

Everything  made  by  man's  hands  has  a  form,  which  must 
be  either  beautiful  or  ugly:  beautiful  if  it  is  in  accord 
with  nature  and  helps  her;  ugly  if  it  is  discordant  with 
nature  and  thwarts  her. 

We  live  in  deeds,  not  words. 

Clearness  furthennore  requires  that  within  the  sen- 
tence there  shall  be  no  needless  shifts  of  subject  or  of 
the  voice  of  the  verb.  The  change  is  likely  to  check 
slightly  the  rapid  progress  of  the  reader.  "He  decided 
to  go  to  Europe,  and  passage  on  the  next  steamer  was 
engaged  by  him"  is  not  quite  so  easy  to  grasp  as  "He 
decided  to  go  to  Europe  and  engaged  passage  on  the 
next  steamer."  This  same  principle  applies  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

While  I  was  at  school  all  While   I  was   at  school   I 

the   books    required    for   the  read  all  the  books   required 

entrance    examination    were  for    the    entrance    examina- 

read  by  me.  tion. 

After  a  pupil  has  once  After  a  pupil  has  once 
worked  a  thing  out  for  him-  worked  a  thing  out  for  him- 
self, it  is  not  easily  forgot-  self,  he  does  not  easily  for- 
ten  by  him.  get  it. 


300  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

I   wrote  many  themes  on  I   wrote  many  themes  on 

the  books  which  were  stud-  the  books  which  I  studied, 
led  by  me. 

The  next  year  I  had  no  The  next  year  I  had  no 
English  composition,  but  my  English  composition,  but  I 
practice  was  kept  up  by  kept  up  my  practice  by  writ- 
writing  translations  of  ing  translations  of  French, 
French,  Latin,  and  Greek.  Latin,  and  Greek. 

She    would    always    stand  She    would    always    stand 

during  the  whole  church  during  the  whole  church 
service  if  any  wild  Amorite  service,  if  she  could  per- 
out  of  the  streets  could  be  suade  any  wild  Amorite  out 
persuaded  to  take  her  seat.       of   the    streets   to   take    her 

seat. 

Clearness  and  precision  also  demand  that  leading 
ideas  shall  be  put  in  leading  clauses  and  subordinate 
ideas  in  subordinate  clauses.  The  sentence,  "I  was 
going  down  town  to-day  and  I  saw  a  man  badly  hurt 
in  a  runaway,"  contains  two  leading  coordinate  clauses, 
connected  by  "and."  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  first  is  far 
less  important  than  the  second  and  should  be  subordi- 
nated, or  perliaps  reduced  to  a  mere  adverbial  phrase: 
"As  I  was  going  down  town  to-day,  I  saw,  etc.,"  or 
"Going  down  town  to-day,"  or  "On  my  way  down 
town."  The  conjunctions  "and"  and  "but"  should  be 
used  to  connect  clauses  about  equal  in  value  and  there- 
fore properly  coordinated;  such  conjunctions  as  "when," 
"as,"  and  "if,"  and  the  relative  pronouns  should  intro- 
duce subordinate  clauses.  In  the  sentence,  "His  face  was 
dirty  and  I  could  hardly  recognize  him,"  the  first  clause 
states  a  cause,  the  second  an  effect;  the  clauses  should 
accordingly  be  joined  by  a  connective  which  brings  out 
this  relation  clearly:  "His  face  was  so  dirty  that  I  could 


THE   SENTENCE 


301 


hardly  recognize  him."     The  principle  is  further  illus- 
trated in  the  following  examples : 


Along  both  sides  of  the 
street  are  small  shops,  and 
one  can  buy  everything  from 
a  doll  to  a  stove-brush. 


Last  evening  I  was  rid- 
ing home  from  the  tennis 
tournament  and  I  heard  an 
interesting  conversation. 

I  was  running  down  hill 
and  I  fell  headlong,  break- 
ing my  arm. 

I  had  gone  only  a  mile 
and  I  began  to  be  sorry  I 
had  started. 


Along  both  sides  of  the 
street  are  small  shops, 
where  one  can  buy  every- 
thing from  a  doll  to  a 
stove-brush. 

Last  evening  while  rid- 
ing home  from  the  tennis 
tournament  I  heard  an  in- 
teresting conversation. 

While  running  down  hill 
I  fell  headlong  and  broke 
my  arm. 

When  I  had  gone  only  a 
mile  I  began  to  be  sorry  I 
had  started. 


It    was    a    dark    day    and  It   was    such   a   dark   day 

we   had  to   light  the   lamps      that    we    had    to    light    the 
early.  lamps   early. 

All  sentences — except  in  occasional  passages  of  dia- 
lect or  careless  conversation — should  be  strictly  gram- 
matical. To  enumerate  the  man}'  possible  violations  of 
grammatical  propriety  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this 
book,  but  two  errors  are  so  common  as  to  warrant 
attention  here:  confused  pronouns  and  misrelated  par- 
ticiples. 

A  pronoun  should  always  refer  unmistakably  to  its 
antecedent;  and  if  a  pronoun  is  not  clear,  the  noun 
itself  should  be  employed.  The  following  sentence  is 
obscure:  "The  head-master  started  to  reprove  the  boy, 
but  he  had   hardly   begun   when   he   abruptly   left  the 


303 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


room."  The  List  "he"  may  refer  either  to  the  master 
or  the  boy,  nnd  in  order  to  clear  uj)  the  ainl)io;uity  one 
noun  or  the  other  is  needed.  "'They  expected  to  meet 
ac([uaintaiiccs  in  town,  hut  they  tailed  to  keep  the  ap- 
pointment" is  also  obscure  because  the  second  "they" 
may  refer  to  the  first  or  to  "acquaintances."  In  the 
following  examples  the  use  of  pronouns  is  further 
illustrated : 


T  li  e  opposing  guard 
tackled  our  fullback  and 
he  was  badly  hurt. 


The  opposing  guard 
tackled  our  fullback  and 
was  badly  hurt. 

The  opposing  guard 
tackled  and  badly  hurt  our 
fullback. 


The  Democrats  say  their 
candidates  are  opposed  by 
the  Independents  and  they 
are  likely  to  defeat  them. 


The  leaves  are  falling 
from  the  trees,  which  have 
been  touched  by  frost. 


The  Democrats  say  their 
candidates  are  opjDosed  by 
the  Independents  and  are 
likely  to  defeat  them. 

The  Democrats  say  their 
candidates  are  opposed  by 
the  Independents,  who  are 
likely  to  defeat  them. 

The  leaves,  which  have 
been  touched  by  frost,  are 
falling  from  the  trees. 


A  pronoun  is  likely  to  be  obscure  when  it  refers  to 
a  clause,  a  phrase,  or — even  worse — a  noun  which  is 
suggested  but  not  actually  used.  In  the  sentence,  "I 
should  like  to  go  to  New  York,  wliich  is  nothing  un- 
usual for  me,"  the  "which"  is  ambiguous,  for  it  may 
mean  either  "going  to  New  York"  or  "liking  to  go." 
The  sentence,  "He  is  so  fond  of  riding  horseback  that 
I  shall  buy  him  one,"  is  marred  by  the  same  defect  in 


THE   SENTENCE 


303 


slightly  different  form :  the  "one"  refers  to  "horse"  in 
"horseback."  In  the  sentence,  "She  always  dresses  well, 
but  I  do  not  know  who  makes  them,"  the  "them"  refers 
obscurely  to  a  noun  suggested  by  the  verb  "dresses." 
The  surest  way  to  avoid  such  errors  is  to  give  every 
pronoun  a  definite  antecedent.  The  following  examples 
exhibit  both  the  fault  and  the  correction : 


He  is  the  ablest  member 
of  the  New  York  bar,  which 
is  a  distinction  worth  hav- 
ing. 

He  is  so  good  a  yachts- 
man that  he  can  handle  one 
admirably  the  first  time  he 
sets  foot  on  it. 


He  is  a  successful  builder 
and  he  has  put  up  a  great 
many  of  them. 


He  is  the  ablest  member 
of  tlie  New  York  bar,  a 
distinction  which  is  worth 
having. 

He  is  so  good  a  yachts- 
man that  he  can  handle  a 
yacht  admirably  the  first 
time  he  sets  foot  on  it. 

He  is  so  skilful  a  sailor 
that  he  can  handle  a  yacht 
admirably  the  first  time  he 
sets  foot  on  it. 

He  is  a  successful  builder 
and  he  has  put  up  a  great 
many  houses. 


Every  participle  which  is  used  as  an  adjective  belongs 
to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  wliich  it  qualifies ;  and  it  must 
be  so  placed  that  the  construction  is  evident.  In  the 
sentence,  "When  through  using,  the  lights  must  be 
turned  out,"  the  participle  "using"  does  not  belong  to 
"lights,"  but  to  some  person  or  persons  unknown.  The 
form,  "When  through  using  the  lights,  turn  them  out," 
is  clearer  because  "using"  then  belongs  to  the  (under- 
stood) subject  of  the  verb  "turn."  "The  lights,  when 
not  in  use,  must  be  turned  out,"  is  still  better  in  that 
it  brings  "lights"  to  a  more  conspicuous  position  near 


304  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

the  beginning.  In  the  sentence,  "Thwarted  in  every 
effort  to  obtain  justice,  despair  finally  overcame  him," 
"thwarted"  seems  at  first  reading  to  belong  to  "despair," 
near  which  it  stands;  but  it  really  belongs  to  "him," 
from  which  it  is  widely  separated.  A  clearer  arrange- 
ment is,  "Thwarted  in  every  effort  to  obtain  justice,  he 
was  finally  overcome  by  despair."  The  principle  is  also 
applied  in  the  following  sentences: 

Enchanted   with    the   new  Enchanted   with   the   new 

scenes,   the   voyage   was   de-  scenes,  they  found  the  voy- 

lightful    from    beginning   to  age    delightful    from   begin- 

end.  ning  to  end. 

Occupying  a  farm  of  sev-  Occupying  a  farm  of  sev- 

enty acres,  the  station  was  enty  acres,  he  lived  only  a 
only  a  mile  away.  mile  from  the  station. 

Cramped  in  a  little  attic,  Cramped  in  a  little  attic, 

the  nights  seemed  to  her  she  felt  the  nights  suffocat- 
suffocating   and   endless.  ing  and   endless. 

Arriving    at    Athens,    the  Arriving     at     Athens,     he 

city  impressed  him  as  won-  was  impressed  with  the  won- 
derfully beautiful.  derful  beauty  of  the  city. 

A  participial  clause  hanging  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence— the  "dangling  participle"  as  it  is  called — is 
likely  to  be  obscure  or  awkward.  An  idea  which  is 
important  enough  for  such  conspicuous  position  usu- 
ally deserves  a  clause  with  a  verb.  The  following  sen- 
tences show  the  fault  and  the  correction : 

The  responsibility  of  com-  The  responsibility  of  com- 

mand proved  too  great  for  mand  proved  too  great  for 
him,  he  being  accustomed  to  him,  for  from  his  youth  he 
obey   from  his  youth.  had    been    accustomed    to 

obey. 


THE   SEKTENCE  305 

The  storm  continued  dur-  The  storm  coutinued  dur- 

ing the  hurdle  races,  clearing      ing    the    hurdle    races     but 
off  about  noon.  cleared  off  about  noon. 

Captain    Nash   pitched.  Captain    Nash   pitched, 

Lowe  going  to  third.  and  Lowe  went  to  third. 

He     then     proceeded     to  Telling   us    how    naughty 

whip  us  both,  telling  us  how  it    was    to    disobey    him,    he 

naughty    it    was    to    disobey  proceeded  to  whip  us  both, 
him. 

QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES 

1.  Define  a  sentence. 

2.  Give  examples  from  your  reading  of  each  of  the  several  types 
of  sentence. 

3.  What  is  good  use? 

4.  Give  examples  of  constructions  or  of  phrases  which  are  neither 
in  national  nor  in  reputable  use. 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  punctuation  ? 

6.  Give  each  of  the  rules  of  punctuation,  and  an  example  under 
each. 

7.  Punctuate  the  following  passage  : 

High  up  on  one  of  the  headlands  of  the  Island  of  Lewis 
two  young  lads  were  idly  seated  on  the  grass  sometimes 
plucking  a  head  of  Dutch  clover  sometimes  turning  their 
eyes  to  a  group  of  small  islands  which  lay  far  out  at  the 
horizon  line  beyond  the  wide  blue  spaces  of  the  Atlantic 
it  was  a  warm  still  beautiful  day  the  sea  was  calm  those 
low-lying  islands  out  there  were  faint  and  pale  like  clouds. 

Archie  said  the  elder  I  saw  one  of  the  French  smacks 
go  by  this  morning. 

I  saw  her  too  replied  the  younger  lad  who  was  the 
schoolmaster's  son. 

There  was  nothing  said  for  a  time  the  bees  hummed 
among  the  clover  the  collie  lying  near  sleepily  winked  his 
eyes  and  Colin  M'Calmont  the  taller  of  the  two  lads  kept 
his  gaze  directed  on  the  pale  blue  islands  out  at  the  hori- 
zon at  length  he  said 

Archie  my  father  is  a  hard-working  man  and  it  is  not 
easy  now  to  make  the  farms  pay  with  the  rents  high  and 


'^OG  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

sheep  not  selling  well  at  the  market  my  father  has  not 
his  troubles  to  seek  as  the  minister  says  and  to  think  that 
these  P'renchmen  sliould  be  allowed  to  go  and  kill  a  sheep 
just  as  they  want  it  when  they  are  going  by  P'arriskeir  or 
Rua  that  is  what  angers  me. 

And  me  too  said  AreJiie  Livingston  though  it  is  not  my 
father's  sheep  tlicy  kill  it  angers  me  because  they  are 
Frenchmen  yes  and  thieves  bisidts  hut  what  can  you  do 
Colin 

They  were  still  regarding  the  far  islands. 

If  my  father  would  let  me  M'Calmont  said  I'd  go  out 
and  live  on  Farriskcir  until  all  the  French  smacks  had 
gone  by  to  Iceland  if  they  knew  any  one  was  on  Farriskeir 
or  Rua  that  would  be  enougli  they  would  soon  talk  about 
it  amongst  themselves  and  there  would  be  no  more  stealing 
of  my  fatlier's  slu-e])  do  you  think  I  would  be  afraid  I 
would  not  be  afraid  J  would  buikl  myself  a  hut  for  there 
is  plenty  of  wood  waslied  up  since  the  big  vessel  went 
ashore  on  Rua. 

Colin  said  the  other  after  a  while  I  have  something  to 
tell  you  do  you  know  my  horse  pistol 

Of  course  I  know  it. 

8.  When  is  a  sentence  a  unit  ? 

9.  What  are  the  sins  against  unity  ? 

10.  Recast  the  following  matter  so  that  the  sentences  have 
unity: 

The  stump  of  a  horse-chestnut  stood  in  the  middle  of  a 
field.  The  stump  was  ancient  and  leafless.  The  field  was 
dusty.  It  was  bordered  on  the  south  side  by  a  row  of 
houses.  They  were  buildings  of  some  pretension.  Against 
this  stump  a  girl  of  seventeen  was  lianging  a  doormat.  She 
was  pretty  and  delicate.  A  neighbor  spoke  to  her.  She 
started  and  turned  round  with  a  blush. 

J.  Smith,  a  student  from  the  theological  seminary,  occu- 
pied the  pulpit  of  the  church  on  the  l6th,  day  and  evening, 
thougli  the  evening  services  partook  more  of  the  nature  of 
a  conference  and  jirayer-mceting,  and  on  tlie  2'id  he  again 
served  as  our  minister  in  the  evening,  there  being  no  day 
services  on  account  of  the  rain.     Previous  to  the   If^th  Mr. 


THE  SENTENCE  307 

Smith  was  never  in  Rhode  Island,  being  a  native  of  north- 
ern New  York,  where  his  parents  now  live  and  run  an 
extensive  farm  of  their  own,  their  chief  productions  being 
fruit,  corn,  oats,  and  other  grain,  and  potatoes,  besides 
horses  and  cattle. 

The  history  of  our  country  during  the  last  forty  years 
proves  to  the  mind  of  every  thoughtful  citizen  that  our 
party  is  the  only  party  to  be  intrusted  with  any  work  of 
construction,  and  it  is  the  only  party  that  has  had  the 
brains  and  the  courage  to  deal  successfully  with  the  many 
important  and  serious  questions  that  have  come  up  during 
the  period  of  a  lifetime,  some  of  which  have  threatened 
and  endangered  the  very  existence  of  our  republic,  and 
all  of  these  great  questions  have  been  settled  with  honor 
and  credit  to  the  nation,  and  to-day,  after  the  trials  and 
distresses  of  panic  and  of  war,  the  American  people  are 
more  prosperous  than  the  people  of  any  other  country. 

We  left  school  at  about  two  o'clock  and  went  to  India 
Point,  where  we  found  a  large  crowd  of  people  waiting 
to  be  ferried  across  to  the  gunboat,  consequently  we  were 
delayed  in  purchasing  a  fare  for  carrying  us  across,  but 
when  one  was  secured  we  jumped  into  a  dirty,  leaky  boat, 
which  was  rowed  by  an  old  man,  who  acted  as  if  the  next 
stroke  of  the  oar  would  be  his  last. 

I  have  heard  that  once  a  man  went  to  the  place  where 
some  men  were  digging  up  old  books  and  statues,  and  got 
on  top  of  one  of  the  ruins  of  a  temple  and  took  a  great 
many  things ;  some  people  think  he  ought  not  to  have  taken 
these  things,  but  I  don't  see  why,  because  if  he  had  not 
taken  them  they  would  not  have  been  seen  so  much. 

The  Greeks  had  a  very  brave  general  named  Xenophon; 
he  was  very  brave  and  I  think  he  wrote  a  book,  but  I  don't 
see  why  he  didn't  let  some  one  else  write  it,  because  if 
he  did  anything  he  would  have  to  praise  himself,  and  the 
people  might  think  he  wanted  to  become  king  and  they 
would  kill  him. 

11.  Show  how  the  order  of  words  in  a  sentence  may  be  deter- 
mined by  good  use. 


308  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

12.  What  words  in  a  sentence  should  be  grouped  together? 

13.  Improve  the  order  of  the  words  in  the  following  sentences  : 

Lost — Near  Highgate  Archway,  an  umbrella  belonging 
to  a  gentleman  with  a  bent  rib  and  a  bone  handle. 

His  father  was  a  poor  but  industrious  man,  who  had  to 
support  a  large  family,  the  whole  of  whom,  with  the  single 
exception  of  William,  were  either  deaf  or  dumb,  from  the 
precarious  emoluments  of  a  barber's  business. 

We  hold  a  grand  raffle  on  Friday  for  the  benefit  of 
William  Miller,  who  lost  his  foot,  for  a  fine  clock. 

Our  flat-top  desks  are  suitable  for  teachers,  having 
closed  backs  and  top  rails  and  made  both  single  and  double- 
sided. 

A  few  stray  pictures  are  on  the  mantel  and  a  large  clock. 

On  the  walls  sentiments  are  painted  from  the  poets 
in  red. 

In  our  first  year  in  high  school  we  had  to  write  English 
compositions  every  month,  which  I  entered  at  the  age  of 
fourteen. 

In  the  game  this  afternoon  Jolinson  was  stunned  by  a 
blow  which  drew  blood  from  a  hockey-stick. 

14.  Where  should  words  be  placed  for  emphasis  ? 

15.  Rewrite  the  following  sentences  so  that  the  important  words 
are  properly  emphasized  : 

Her  summers  are  spent  in  swimming  and  sailing,  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

My  cousin  is  a  great  student  of  the  classics,  though  he 
is  still  but  a  young  boy. 

It  is  certainly  to  the  interest  of  the  city  to  have  as  few 
criminals  as  possible  within  her  borders. 

In  order  to  explain  its  working,  it  now  becomes  neces- 
sary to  suppose  a  knowledge  of  logarithms  on  the  part  of 
the  reader. 


THE   SENTENCE  309 

These  stone  pillars  were  very  expensive,  for  they  cost 
$1,000  apiece,  I  am  told. 

Our  team  acted  as  if  it  could  not  withstand  many  of 
Dibble's  rushes,  to  all  appearances.  Our  two  great  weak- 
nesses seemed  to  be  the  line  and  the  defence,  according 
to  the  generally  expressed  opinion. 

I  believe  we  should  have  a  system  which  should  remedy 
these  three  defects  at  least.  Such  a  system  can  be  found 
at  Andover  and  at  Exeter,  I  think. 

i6.  In  each  of  the  following  examples  recast  the  second  sentence 
so  as  to  begin  with  a  connective  word  or  phrase : 

On  entering  the  high  school  we  first  used  as  a  text-book 
Lockwood's  Lessons  in  English.  I  learned  a  great  deal 
that  has  helped  me  from  that  book. 

In  the  second  year  Hill's  Foundations  of  Rhetoric  was 
the  text-book.  We  read  in  that  same  year  Shakspere's 
Merchant  of  Venice. 

The  Arcade  extends  from  Westminster  Street  to  Wey- 
bosset.  In  some  respects  this  building  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  in    Providence. 

17.  In  the  following  sentences  transpose  some  word  or  phrase 
from  the  normal  order  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  : 

He  will  do  anything  for  money. 

This  house  is  good  enough  for  me. 

One  of  my  chief  pleasures  is  to  ride  on  top  of  an 
omnibus. 

I  will  never  agree  to  that  concession. 

18.  Explain  the  difference  between  a  loose  and  a  periodic  sen- 
tence. 

19.  Make  the  following  sentences  periodic  : 

He  walked  up  the  staircase  with  the  energy  of  fresh- 
ened resolution. 


310  ENGLISH    COMPOSITIO^T 

He  could  not  test  my  eyes  properly  without  relaxing 
them,  so  he  put  in  some  liquid. 

From  the  cupola  you  could  see  all  of  Boston  and  also 
a  great  deal  that  lies  outside  of  the  city. 

The  first  thing  you  come  to  arc  two  big  bronze  lions,  as 
you  walk  up  the  steps. 

I  looked  from  the  window  of  the  Washington  Monument 
and  saw  a  baseball  game. 

I  shall  not  vote  for  this  measure  unless  it  is  clearly 
constitutional. 

This  was  forbidden  by  taste  as  well  as  by  judgment. 

I  went  over  to  the  navy-yard,  but  the  officer  would  not 
let  me  in. 

Miss  Tewksbury  sent  a  second  lot  of  curiosities  to  the 
museum. 

We  did  not  have  to  wait  long  before  we  were  admitted 
to  his  office. 

I  do  better  work  in  this  study  because  I  am   fond  of  it. 

20.  What  does  the  principle  of  proportion  require  ? 

21.  Cut  out  the  superfluous  words  in  the  following  sentences  : 

I  received  higher  credit  for  this  work  than  I  did  for 
any  other  written  work  I  had  done. 

In  the  midst  of  our  luncheon,  when  we  were  about  half 
through  and  our  ajjpetites  had  bctrun  to  be  satisfied,  we 
were  startled  by  a  flash  of  lifrhtiiing  which  came  from  the 
sky.  Hurrying  everything  into  the  baskets  in  a  most  pro- 
miscuous manner,  without  waiting  to  arrange  them  or  put 
them  in  any  sort  of  order  wliatcver,  we  rushed  to  the 
nearest  shelter. 

We  had  a  tame  crow  that  was  a  great  favorite  with  the 
whole  family,  which  was  very  fond  of  him.  He  had  many 
bright,  interesting,  and  cunning  ways,  which  won  him  many 
friends,  but  which  at  last  got  him  into  serious  trouble  and 
cost  him  his  life. 


THE   SEKTENCE  311 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  a  young  person  to  choose 
a  profession,  to  know  which,  among  the  many  legitimate 
and  attractive  callings  in  which  he  might  engage,  will  most 
benefit  him  and  the  world  at  large. 

22.  Recast  the  following  sentences  in  parallel  constructions  : 

They  lived  in  a  small  cottage  whicli  John  had  fitted  up 
for  himself,  and  was  very  pleasant. 

By  "good  use"  is  meant  correct  use,  no  more  words  than 
necessary,  and  always  to  use  the  simplest  words. 

I  studied  the  lives  of  these  authors  and  the  works  of 
each,  but  sijending  the  most  of  my  time  on  Milton  and 
Shakspere. 

I  remember  seeing  him  start  off  to  school,  and  that  he 
then  said  lie  would  be  home  for  lunch. 

I  told  him  to  hurry  back  and  that  the  family  were  wait- 
ing for  him. 

A  good  paragraph  must  have  unity  of  thought;  one 
should  connect  logically  the  different  sentences  of  which 
it  is  composed ;  and  it  is  well  to  make  prominent  what  is 
most  important. 

The  line  consists  of  a  centre  rush,  who  has  a  guard  on 
each  side  of  him ;  next  to  the  guards  come  the  tackles ; 
and  then  the  lines  are  terminated  by  the  players  called 
"ends." 

23.  Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

He  sent  me  a  good  long  letter  and  which  I  was  very 
glad  to  get. 

I  belong  to  an  interesting  literary  society,  but  which 
demands  a  great  deal  of  my  time. 

24.  Improve  the  following  sentences  : 

He  was  a  dark,  bullying  fellow,  and  wine-glasses  would 
be  chewed  and  swallowed  by  him  by  way  of  convivial 
levity. 


312  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

The  captain  drew  a  sword,  which  was  held  in  his  right 
hand. 

He  accepted  the  invitation  and  a  pleasant  dinner  was 
given  him. 

City  people  do  not  know  what  good  sleighing  is ;  nor 
is  it  appreciated  by  them  as  it  should  be,  had  they  lived 
in  the  country  and  enjoyed  the  glorious  rides  that  only 
country  people  experience. 

25.  Recast  the  following  sentences  in  leading  and  subordinate 
clauses : 

I  looked  out  of  the  window,  and  the  sky  was  gray,  and 
a  rather  gloomy  feeling  came  over  me. 

I  was  standing  on  Weybosset  Street  yesterday  and  my 
attention  was  attracted  by  a  beautiful  greyhound.  I  ob- 
served that  he  had  lost  his  mistress  and  I  watched  him 
with  a  great  deal  of  interest.  Soon  he  found  her  and  he 
showed  his  delight  by  wagging  his  tail. 

We  got  tired  of  playing  ball  and  we  looked  about  us 
for  some  new  sport,  and  we  wandered  into  a  field  where 
our  father  was  at  work. 

26.  In  rewriting  the  following  sentences  give  each  pronoun  a 
definite  antecedent : 

His  themes  are  carelessly  written,  which  he  does  not 
attempt  to  deny. 

Without  doubt  the  dog  was  shot,  but  no  one  knows  who 
fired  it. 

As  we  came  down  the  road,  it  sounded  like  a  train,  which, 
as  we  approached,  grew  louder  and  louder. 

I  am  not  able  to  read  very  rapidly,  though  I  always 
enjoy  it. 

He  is  often  overworked  and  then  punished  for  not  doing 
it  well. 


THE    SENTENCE  313 

27.  Amend  the  following  sentences  : 

Grasping   his    hand   in    mine,   we    made    our   way   to   the 
barn. 

While    sitting    in    my    room    just    after    lunch,    the    fire- 
alarm  sounded. 

We  went  on  without  speaking,  the  noise  of  the  engine 
drowning  our  voices. 

Having  scarcely  reached  our  destination,  the  sky  became 
overcast. 

Turning  the  knob,  the  door  readily  opened. 

After  waiting  about  half  an  hour  the  gate  opened. 

Having  walked   about   half   an   hour   through   a   pouring 
rain,  the  plan  was  finally  abandoned. 

On  walking  down  Broadway,  the  ear  is  deafened  by  the 
roar  of  cars  and  wagons. 

I  put  on  my  heavy  overcoat,  the  wind  being  very  cold. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

WORDS 

57.  Good  Use. —  Good  use,  as  we  have  already  learned, 
requires  that  words,  as  well  as  constructions,  shall  be 
present,  national,  and  reputable. 

A  word  drops  out  of  common  speech  because  it  is  sup- 
planted by  one  which  is  more  convenient,  or  because  the 
idea  which  it  expresses  is  no  lon<rer  current.  Many 
words  relating  to  chivalry  and  its  customs  have,  as  we 
have  seen,  passed  away ;  and  if  electricity  displaces  the 
steam  locomotive,  the  vocabulary  of  locomotive  engineer- 
ing will  in  like  manner  become  obsolete.  Certain  archaic 
words  and  forms  survive  in  poetry,  such  as  "in  sooth," 
"ne'er,"  and  "perchance"  ;  but  in  prose  no  one  employs 
them  except  by  deliberate  affectation. 

The  usual  error  is  easy  hospitality  to  all  sorts  of  new 
words.  Modern  inventions  bring  in  a  train  of  words  and 
phrases.  "Telephone,"  both  noun  and  verb,  and  "tele- 
phonic," adjective,  are  recent  acquisitions ;  "automobile," 
noun  and  verb,  is  still  more  recent.  Such  words,  which 
supply  an  actual  need,  speedily  grow  as  respectable  as  the 
oldest.  Hosts  of  words,  however,  drift  into  every-day 
use,  are  taken  uf)  by  the  newspapers,  l)ut  never  become 
reputable.  They  linger  near  the  borderland  of  slang. 
Those  dubious  words  are  coined  so  fast  that  a  list  of  them 
would  be  out  of  date  in  a  year  or  two.  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  wliicli  iiioxed  much  more  slowlv  than  this,  a  critic 

314 


WOKDS  315 

complained  of  "the  mushroom  growth  of  a  new  language, 
filled  with  phrases  which  nobody  could  have  understood 
when  we  were  young."  Swift,  for  example,  would  not 
admit  the  noun  "mob,"  but  it  has  long  since  been  good 
enough  for  the  most  fastidious  purist.  Somewhat  later 
than  Swift,  President  John  Witherspoon  of  Princeton 
warned  his  students  that  "chunk"  and  "scrimmage" 
were  vulgar,  but  both  words  now  enter  polite  society.  In 
the  twentieth  century,  with  its  telegraphs  and  its  flood 
of  books  and  newspapers,  change  follows  change  so 
rapidly  that  in  a  decade  some  of  the  words  to  which  we 
object  may  have  disappeared  entirely,  while  others  may 
have  been  promoted  into  standard  literature.  "Graft" — 
not  direct  stealings  but  illegitimate  profits,  often  in  po- 
litical office — is  now  in  general  use  in  America.  Careful 
writers  still  set  it  off  by  quotation  marks,  to  indicate 
doubt  as  to  its  repute,  but  "graft"  may  soon  be  as 
reputable  and  as  much  in  present  use  as  "theft."  In 
deciding  whether  a  word  is  in  present  use,  one  may 
safely  take  Pope's  advice: 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold; 
Alike  fantastic  if  too  new  or  old : 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside. 

On  the  street  or  in  our  business  we  hear  many  terms 
which  are  peculiar  to  a  place,  a  trade,  or  a  science, 
and  are  therefore  not  national.  These  words  we  must 
either  avoid  or  explain  if  we  wish  to  be  understood  by 
the  general  reader.  The  following  localisms,  from  New 
England,  the  South,  and  the  West,  are  improper  unless 
put,  as  a  sort  of  dialect,  in  the  mouth  of  a  person  who 
5V0uld  naturally  use  them : 


316  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

admire  (for  "like/'  as  in  "I  should  admire  to  see  you  get 
ahead  of  him"). 

allow,  calculate,  expect,  guess,  reckon  (for  "think"  or 
"suppose"). 

disremember 

favor  (for  "resemble,"  as  in  "He  favors  his  brother"). 

flunk  (for  "fail"). 

pack  (for  "carry"). 

perk  up 

tote 

spider  (for  "frying-pan"). 

clever   (for  "good-natured"). 

forehanded  (for  "well-to-do"). 

pesky 

smart  (as  in  "a  smart  distance"). 

tuckered  (for  "tired  out"). 

right  (for  "very"). 

like  (for  "as,"  in  "Do  like  I  do."  "Do  as  I  do"  is 
correct,  but  "Do  like  I  do"  is  not  sanctioned  by  the  best 
authorities. 


Good  usage  in  Great  Britain  and  America  is  generally 
the  same,  but  in  the  exceptional  cases  Americans  should 
stick  to  the  American  fashion.  Here  are  a  few  of  the 
more  notable  differences: 


AMERICAN 

BRITISH 

druggist 

chemist 

corn 

maize 

grain 

corn 

lemonade 

lemon-squash 

pie 

tart 

fireman 

stoker 

conductor 

guard 

ticket  agent 

booking-clerk 

baggage-car 

luggage-van 

freight-train 

goods-train 

street-car 

tram 

elevator 

lift 

WORDS  317 

Every  trade  and  science  has  its  special  words. 
"Chamfer,"  "dowel,"  and  "countersink"  belong  to  the 
carpenter's  vocabulary;  "easement"  and  "tort"  to  the 
lawyer's;  and  "sequelae"  and  "prophylaxis"  to  the 
physician's.  The  carpenter's  words  are  suitable  for 
writing  that  is  intended  for  carpenters,  but  unless  they 
are  defined  they  are  not  intelligible  to  the  average  reader. 

Reputable  usage  is  the  usage  of  careful  writers  and 
speakers.  A  single  author  of  repute  may  be  unable  to 
introduce  a  new  word  or  fix  the  meaning  of  an  old  one, 
but  half  a  dozen  in  agreement  kire  a  suflScient  authority. 
Violations  of  reputable  usage  fall  roughly  into  two 
classes:  barbarisms,  words  which  are  not  English;  and 
improprieties,  good  English  words  misused. 

First  among  barbarisms  come  foreign  words  which 
have  not  yet  been  accepted  into  the  language.  At  one 
time  and  another  many  words  from  French,  German,  and 
other  tongues  have  become  anglicized.  A  foreign  word 
is  adopted  with  good  reason  when  it  supplies  a  genuine 
want,  that  is,  expresses  an  idea  for  which  there  is  no  con- 
venient English  equivalent.  We  have  borrowed  "acme" 
from  the  Greek,  "circus"  and  "arbor"  from  the  Latin, 
"piano"  and  "macaroni"  from  the  Itahan,  "tobacco"  and 
"wigwam"  from  the  North  American  Indian,  "ranch" 
from  the  Spanish,  "amateur,"  "etiquette,"  and  "chande- 
lier" from  the  French,  and  "meerschaum"  from  the  Ger- 
man. These  words  are  as  good  to-day  as  if  they  had 
always  been  English.  Some  writers,  however,  like  to  air 
their  knowledge  by  sprinkling  their  pages  with  foreign 
phrases — ocl  libitum,  multum  in  parvo,  faux  pas,  entre 
nous,  qui  vive,  eclat,  recherche,  mal  de  mer,  chic,  raison 
d'etre,  nouveau  riche.    No  one  of  these  can  claim  a  place 


318 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


in  English  because  we  have  words  of  our  own  that  ex- 
press the  meaning. 

Still  other  barbarisnis  are  those  words  which,  though 
really  not  in  the  English  language,  are  used  by  the  igno- 
rant and  vulgar.  Some  of  the  more  common  vulgarisms 
are: 


ad    (for    "advertisement"). 

bike 

billiardist 

boiigliten 

burglarize 

co-ed 

enthuse 

exam 

faddist 

firstly  ("first"  is  pre- 
ferred). 

gents 

gym 

humans  (for  "human  be- 
ings"). 


orate 

pants    (for   "trousers"), 
phone 
photo 
prelim 

preventative    (for  "prevent- 
ive"). 
proven   (for  "proved"), 
skedaddle 
suspieioned- 
tasty   (for  "tasteful"), 
unbeknown 
varsity 
walkist 


In  the  same  class  may  be  included  many  slang 
terms,  such  as  "biff,"  "chump,"  "cracker jack,"  "duds," 
"galoot,"  and  "snide." 

Most  of  our  slang,  however,  consists  of  improprieties. 
"Hot"  and  "stuff"  are  both  projicr,  but  the  slang  "hot 
stuff"  is  an  impropriety.  "Easy"  and  "mark"  are  good 
in  their  places ;  "easy  mark"  is  not. 

Closely  allied  to  slang  is  the  reckless  misuse  of 
"grand,"  "lovely,"  "terrible,"  and  "awful."  Children 
and  others  who  know  but  a  few  words  apply  "grand"  to 
everything  which  makes  an  agreeable  impression,  from 
chewing-gum  to  Niagara  Falls;  and  "awful"  to  every- 


WORDS  319 

thing  unpleasant,  from  the  loss  of  a  hair-pin  to  the  burn- 
ing of  a  crowded  theatre.  Among  words  thus  frequently 
misused  are  the  following: 

beastly  jolly 

beautiful  nasty 

deadly  nice 

elegant  splendid 

fascinating  stunning 

fine  sweet 

ghastly  swell 

gorgeous  weird 
horrid 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  improprieties  spring 
from  resemblances  either  in  sound  or  meaning.  "Ac- 
cept" and  "except"  are  sometimes  confused  because  care- 
less speakers  fail  to  distinguish  between  the  vowels  of  the 
first  syllable.  "Shall"  and  "will"  do  not  sound  at  all 
alike,  but  since  each  expresses  the  future,  many  persons 
never  grasp  the  difference  between  them.  Below  is  a  list 
of  words  often  improperly  used : 

Nouns. 

Acceptance,  acceptation. — "Acceptance"  is  the  "act  of 
accepting" ;  "acceptation,"  the  "accepted  meaning  of  a  word 
or  phrase."  "His  acceptance  of  my  gift  shows  friendli- 
ness."    "I  use  the  word  'let'  in  its  present  acceptation." 

Access,  accession.  —  "Access"  means  "admittance" ; 
"accession,"  "coming  into  possession  of  a  right."  "Since 
Theodore  Roosevelt's  accession  to  the  Presidency  people 
have  easily  gained  access  to  him."  Both  "access"  and  "ac- 
cession" are  employed  in  other  senses,  which  are  not  likely 
to  be  confused. 

Alternative,  choice. — An  "alternative"  implies  a  choice 
between  only  two  things. 


320  EXGLISH    COMPOSITION 

Avocation,  vocation. — A  man's  "vocation"  is  his  regular 
work;  his  "avocation,"  an  outside  employment  or  amuse- 
ment. 

Balance,  remainder,  rest.  — "  Balance/'  a  commercial 
term,  meaninij;  tlie  "differeiiee  between  two  sides  of  an  ac- 
count," is  improperly  used  for  "remainder"  or  "rest." 
"Rest"  is  applied  either  to  persons  or  things;  "remainder," 
to  things.  "The  rest  of  the  clerks  spent  the  remainder  of 
the  afternoon  trying  to  find  whether  the  balance  due  the 
bank  had  been  paid." 

Carriage,  team "Team,"  meaning  "two  or  more  ani- 
mals working  together,"  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for 
"carriage"  or  "wagon." 

Complement,  compliment. — A  "complement"  is  "that 
which  is  needed  to  complete";  a  "compliment,"  an  "expres- 
sion of  praise."  "The  cruiser  received  its  full  complement 
of  guns."  "The  captain  received  many  compliments  on  his 
bravery." 

Completeness,  completion.— "Completeness"  is  the  "state 
of  being  complete";  "completion,"  the  "act  of  completing." 
"The  completeness  of  his  collection  of  stamps  adds  greatly 
to  its  value."  "He  is  busy  over  the  completion  of  his  col- 
lection of  stamps." 

Council,   counsel A  "council"  is  a  "body  of  advisers"  ; 

"counsel"  is  "advice,"  also  "a  legal  adviser."  "The  counsel 
for  the  railway  made  an  argument  before  the  governor's 
council." 

Custom,  habit. — A  "custom"  is  an  "act  voluntarily  re- 
peated"; a  "habit,"  a  "custom  continued  till  it  develops 
into  a  tendency  or  inclination."  We  speak  of  the  "cus- 
tom" of  going  to  church,  the  "habit"  of  smoking  or  drink- 
ing.     "Ill  customs  by  degrees  to  habits  rise." 

Depot,  station.  —  "Station"  is  preferred  as  the  name  of 
a  place  where  a  train  stops.  "Depot"  is  a  "place  for  col- 
lecting or  storing  goods."  "The  depot  of  army  supplies  is 
not  far  from  the  railway  station." 

Discovery,  invention.  —  A  man  "discovers"  what  is  al- 
ready   in    existence;    he    "invents"    something   new.      "Ex- 


WORDS  321 

plorers  are  trying  to  discover  the  North  Pole."     "The  tele- 
phone is  a  modern  invention." 

Emigration,  immigration. — "Emigration"  is  "migration 
from  a  country";  "immigration,"  "into  a  country."  "Thou- 
sands have  emigrated  from  Europe."  "The  population  of 
the  United  States  is  increased  by  immigration." 

Enormity,  enormousness. — "Enormity"  has  reference  to 
moral  quality;  "enormousness,"  to  physical  size.  "The 
enormity  of  his  crimes  shocked  the  community."  "The 
enormousness  of  his  fortune  excited  general  comment." 

Majority,  plurality. — In  an  election  a  candidate  has  a 
"majority"  when  he  has  more  tlian  half  the  votes;  a  "plu- 
rality" when,  with  three  or  more  in  the  field,  he  has  the 
most.  If  Smith  has  1,000  votes,  Brown  600,  and  Jones  500, 
Smith  has  a  "plurality"  of  400  but  not  a  "majority." 

Observance,  observation. — "Good  citizens  are  careful  in 
their  observance  of  the  law."  "Astronomers  make  careful 
observations  of  the  stars." 

Part,  portion. — A  "part"  is  "less  than  the  whole"  ;  a  "por- 
tion," a  "part  allotted  or  assigned."  "My  portion  of  the 
estate  was  but  a  small  part  of  it." 

Party,  person.  —  "Party"  is  often  incorrectly  used  for 
"person"  or  "man."  In  legal  phraseology,  however,  a  man 
may  be  a  "party"  to  a  crime  or  the  "party"  who  sues. 

Sewage,  sewerage. — "The  sewage  of  New  York  is  carried 
off  by  a  system  of  sewerage  which  drains  into  the  bay." 

Significance,  signification.  —  "Significance"  is  "impor- 
tance"; "signification,"  "meaning."  "The  significance  of 
his  act  was  understood  by  all  who  attached  a  proper  signifi- 
cation to  his  words." 

Statue,  statute. — A  "statue"  is  an  "image"  ;  a  "stat- 
ute," a  "law." 

Verbs. 

Admire,  like,  love. — "Admire"  has  in  it  a  suggestion  of 
wonder.      We  "admire"   striking  scenery  or  a  fine  picture. 


325  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

We  "like" — not  "love" — good  things  to  cat  and  siuli  pleas- 
ures as  walking.      We  "love"  our  jjarents. 

Affect,  effect.  —  To  "affect"  is  to  "influence";  to  "ef- 
fect," to  "bring  about  or  accomplish."  "He  was  deeply 
affected  by  his  studies  in  science."  "He  was  unable  to 
effect  his  purpose." 

Aggravate,  irritate,  provoke,  tantalize. — "Aggravate 
is  often  iinproj)erly  used  for  any  of  the  other  tlirec  words. 
It  means  to  "make  heavier  or  worse,  to  intensify."  "Pro- 
voke" is  a  stronger  word  than  "irritate."  A  man  may  often 
be  "tantalized"  without  being  "provoked,"  and  sometimes 
without  being  "irritated."  "His  crime  was  aggravated  by 
his  sullen  refusal  to  confess."  "He  was  much  irritated  by 
the  teasing  ef  his  classmates,  and  finally  he  was  ])rovoked 
bej'ond  endurance  by  a  direct  insult."  "Tlie  sight  of  food 
which  he  was  forbidden  to  eat  tantalized  him." 

Allude  to,  mention,  refer  to. — To  "allude"  to  a  thing  is 
to  "refer  to  it  indirectly";  to  "nienticm"  is  to  "name  out- 
right." "Refer"  stands  half  way  between  the  other  two 
words.  "He  began  by  alluding  to  'that  man  to  whom,  above 
all  others,  the  success  of  the  American  Revolution  was  due.' 
Later  he  referred  to  the  Father  of  his  Country;  and  finally 
he  mentioned  the  name  of  Washington." 

Assert,  claim,  contend,  declare,  maintain,  say,  state. — 
To  "assert"  is  to  "say  or  (hclare  in  the  face  of  inij)li(d  de- 
nial." "He  asserted  that  he  was  not  guilty  of  theft." 
"Claim"  is  carelessly  used  for  each  of  the  other  six  words. 
Properly,  to  "claim"  is  to  "demand  as  a  right."  It  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  direct  object,  an  infinitive,  or  an  objective 
clause.  "He  claims  a  share  in  the  estate."  "He  claims  to 
be  a  graduate  of  Harvard."  "He  claims  that  he  is  entitled 
to  the  office."  But  not,  "He  claims  that  illness  is  generally 
due  to  overeating";  for  this  sentence  contains  no  idea  of 
one's  right  to  jiroperty,  title,  position,  or  consideration. 
"Contend"  implies  opposition.  "In  the  debate  the  Yale 
team  contended  that  football  should  not  be  abolished."  To 
"declare"  is  to  "say  publicly  and  emphatically."  The 
meaning  of  "maintain"  is  mucli  the  same  as  that  of  "con- 
tend," except  that  the  suggestion  of  ojiposition  is  less 
prominent.      "He   maintains   that    all    men   have   a   right  to 


WORDS  323 

life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness."  "State"  carries 
a  suggestion  of  elaboration  and  detail.  "He  stated  very 
fully  his  position  on  the  tax  bill."  "State"  is  improperly 
used  for  "assert,"  "claim,"  "declare^"  and  "maintain,"  and 
even  more  frequently  for  the  simple  "say." 

Atone  for,  compensate,  condone. — To  "atone  for"  is  to 
"make  amends  for,"  generally  an  insult  or  injury;  to  "com- 
pensate" is  to  "pay  for";  to  "condone,"  to  "forgive."  "He 
atoned  for  the  wrong  he  had  done  me,  and  he  also  com- 
pensated me  for  the  money  I  had  lost.  I  was  then  ready  to 
condone  his  misconduct." 

Bring,  carry,  fetch,  take. — "Bring"  generally  implies 
motion  toward  the  speaker's  point  of  view;  "carry"  and 
"take,"  motion  from.  To  "fetch"  is  to  "go  and  bring." 
"Please  bring  that  hammer  to  me."  "Will  you  carry  (or 
take)  that  book  to  school  with  you.''"  "Fetch  me  some 
wood  from  the  cellar." 

Expect,  suppose,  suspect. — "Expect"  looks  to  the  future. 
To  "supi^ose"  is  to  "assume  to  be  true";  to  "suspect"  is  to 
"mistrust  or  imagine  to  be  guilty,  upon  slight  evidence  or 
without  proof."  "I  expect  to  go  to  Los  Angeles  next 
month.  I  suppose  that  my  cousin,  who  started  a  week  ago, 
has  already  arrived.  He  made  the  trip  because  he  suspects 
that  one  of  his  agents  has  been  mismanaging  the  family 
property  there." 

Find,  locate. — To  "locate"  is  to  "fix  in  a  place,  fix  the 
place  of,  establish."  "The  police  have  succeeded  in  find- 
ing (not  locating)  the  burglar  in  Omaha." 

Hanged,  hung. — When  "hang"  means  "execute,"  the 
form  of  the  past  tense  and  the  participle  is  "hanged." 
"He  was  hanged  for  murder." 

Happen,  transpire. — In  the  sessions  of  the  President's 
Cabinet  many  things  "happen"  which  never  "transpire," 
that  is,  "leak  out,"  and  thus  become  known. 

Hire,  lease,  let. — To  "hire"  is  to  "obtain  the  use  of  for 
pay."  W^e  "hire"  a  horse  or  a  boat.  To  "let"  is  to  "allow 
the  use  of  for  pay."  The  keeper  of  a  livery  stable  "lets" 
horses  and  carriages.     To  "lease"  is  to  "let  by  lease,"  that 


324  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

is,  written  contract.     The  owner  of  a  house  "leases"  it  to  a 
tenant. 

Lay,  lie. — "Lay"  is  transitive  ;  "lie,"  intransitive.  "He 
lays  the  book  on  the  table."  "The  ship  lies  at  anchor."  In 
the  past  tense  the  forms  are:  "He  laid  the  book  on  the 
table."      "The  ship  lay  at  anchor." 

Learn,  teach. — "Learn"  was  formerly  used  in  the  sense 
of  "teach,"  but  that  usage  is  obsolete.  We  no  longer  say, 
"He  will  learn  you  wisdom,"  but  "He  will  teach  you  wis- 
dom," and  "You  will  learn  wisdom." 

Lend,  loan. — "Loan"  is  properly  a  noun,  and  as  a  verb 
it  is  not  accepted  by  reputable  authors. 

Propose,  purpose. — To  "propose"  is  to  "bring  forward  an 
idea,"  to  "suggest";  to  "purpose"  is  to  "intend."  "I  pur- 
pose to  go  to  New  York  to-morrow,  and  I  propose  that  you 
join  me." 

Set,  sit. — "Set"  is  transitive;  "sit,"  intransitive.  "He 
sets  the  chair  by  the  table."  "He  sits  in  the  chair."  In 
the  past  tense  the  forms  are:  "He  set  the  chair  by  the 
table."     "He  sat  in  the  chair." 

Stay,  stop. — To  "stay"  is  to  "remain";  to  "stop"  is  to 
"halt."  "The  train  stopped  at  Poughkeepsie  for  five  min- 
utes, but  I  got  off  and  stayed  two  days  at  a  hotel."  "When 
people  pass  this  spring,  they  stop  to  rest  and  drink  the 
water,  but  they  do  not  stay  long."  "I  am  staying  (not 
stopping)  to-night  at  the  club." 

Can,  may,  could,  might.  —  "Can"  implies  ability ; 
"may,"  permission.  "May"  should  always  be  used  to  ask 
permission.  "May  (not  can)  I  be  excused  from  reciting 
to-day.?"  "I  can  not  believe  that  story."  "Can  you  speak 
French?"  The  same  principle  applies  to  "could"  and 
"might." 

Shall,  will,  should,  would. — "Will"  is  often  improperly 
used  for  "shall,"  but  "shall"  is  seldom  improperly  used  for 
"will."  Hence  we  have  a  general  rule  directing  us  away 
from  the  use  of  "will":  Use  "shall"  whenever  it  does  not 
seem  ci  is  courteous.  This  rule,  however,  is  more  intelligible 
if  we  consider  the  applications  in  detail. 


WOKDS  325 


INDEPENDENT   SENTENCES 

In  independent  sentences  the  idea  of  simple  futurity  is 
expressed  as  follows: 

I  (or  we)  shall  go. 

You  will  go. 

He  (or  they)  will  go. 

To  say  "You  shall  go"  or  "He  shall  go"  is  to  issue  a 
command  and  be  discourteous,  unless  the  person  to  whom 
"you"  or  "he"  refers  is  subject  to  the  control  of  the 
speaker. 

In  the  third  person  "will"  sometimes  expresses  customary 
or  habitual  action,  without  regard  to  futurity  or  volition. 
"He  will  smoke  three  cigars  a  day,  year  in  and  year  out." 

In  the  second  and  third  persons  "will,"  when  emphasized, 
implies  not  mere  futurity  but  the  volition  of  the  subject  of 
the  verb.  "You  will  go,  I  suppose,  whatever  happens." 
"He  will  have  his  own  way." 

When  the  action  is  within  the  control  of  the  speaker,  the 
idea  of  the  volition  of  the  speaker  (who  in  the  second  and 
third  persons  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb)  is  expressed  as 
follows : 

I  will  go. 
You  shall  go. 
He  shall  go. 

In  the  second  and  third  persons  "shall"  expresses  a  com- 
mand. "Thou  shalt  not  steal."  But  formal  commands,  is- 
sued by  a  superior  to  an  inferior  (the  action  is  thus  witliin 
the  control  of  the  speaker),  are  generally  phrased  in  the 
language  of  courtesy.  "You  will  report  for  duty  to-night 
at  eight  o'clock,  and  Lieutenant  Smith  will  serve  as  your 
aide." 

In  the  second  and  third  persons  the  "shall"  is  also  prop- 
erly used  in  prophecies  and  promises.  "A  time  shall  come 
when  you  shall  bitterly  repent  your  conduct."  "To-mor- 
row you  shall  have  a  holiday." 

In  the   first  person   when   the   notion   of  volition   is   ex- 


326  ENGLISH    COMI'OSITION' 

pressed  in  the  main  verb  or  some  other  word  of  the  sentence, 
the  auxiliary  takes  the  form  of  the  simple  future.  "I  shall 
be  pleased  to  have  you  call  at  my  office."  "I  shall  be  glad 
to  help  you." 

QUESTIONS 

In  questions  "will"  is  never  proper  for  the  first  person, 
except  to  repeat  a  question  asked  by  another  person.  "Will 
I  go.^"  meaning  "Do  I  wish  to  go?"  would  be  silly,  because 
the  speaker,  better  than  any  one  else,  knows  his  own  mind. 
The  form  for  the  first  person,  with  the  exception  just  noted, 
is  "shall."      "Shall  I  go?" 

In  the  second  and  third  persons  the  auxiliary  should  be 
used  which  is  expected  in  the  answer. 

Shall  you  go  to  the  city  this  afternoon?  I  shall.  (Fu- 
turity. ) 

Will  you  lend  me  your  umbrella?  I  will.  (Volition  of 
the  speaker.) 

Will  your  father  build  an  addition  to  his  house?  He 
will.      (Futurity.) 

Will  your  father  let  you  play  football?  He  will.  (Voli- 
tion not  of  the  speaker  but  of  the  subject  of  the  verb.) 

Shall  your  son  study  French?  He  shall.  (Volition  not 
of  the  subject  of  the  verb  but  of  the  speaker.) 

DEPENDENT    CLAUSES 

For  dependent  clauses  there  are  three  rules: 

1.  For  conditional  clauses. 

2.  For  cases  in  which  a  leading  clause  and  a  dependent 
noun  clause  have  the  same  subject. 

3.  For  cases  in  which  a  leading  clause  and  a  dependent 
noun  clause  have  different  subjects. 

In  all  conditional  clauses  and  clauses  of  that  general  type, 
introduced  by  such  words  as  "if,"  "when,"  "though," 
"whether,"  "wherever,"  "whoever,"  etc.,  "shall"  expresses 
futurity  for  all  persons,  and  "will"  volition.  The  following 
are  the  forms  for  futurity: 

If  I  shall  succeed  in  perfecting  this  invention,  I  shall 
make  a  fortune. 


WORDS  327 

If  you  shall  succeed  in  perfecting  this  invention,  you  will 
make  a  fortune. 

If  he  shall  succeed  in  perfecting  this  invention,  he  will 
make  a  fortune. 

The  forms  for  volition  are: 

If  I  will  consent  to  their  plan,  they  will  help  me  in  turn. 

If  you  will  consent  to  their  plan,  they  will  help  you  in 
turn. 

If  he  will  consent  to  their  plan,  they  will  help  him  in 
turn. 

When  the  principal  clause  contains  a  verb  like  "say," 
"think,"  "fear,"  "hope,"  and  "believe,"  the  subordinate 
clause  is  generally  a  noun  clause  depending  on  the  verb.  If 
both  clauses  have  the  same  subject,  "shall"  in  the  dependent 
expresses  futurity  for  all  persons,  and  "will"  the  volition  of 
the  subject  of  the  clause. 

Futurity : 
I  think  I  shall  go. 
You  think  you  shall  go. 
He  thinks  he  shall  go. 

Volition : 

I  have  decided  that  I  will  go. 
You  have  decided  that  you  will  go. 
He  has  decided  that  he  will  go. 

If  the  clauses  have  different  subjects,  "shall"  and  "will" 
in  the  dependent  are  used  just  as  in  the  independent. 

Futurity : 

He  thinks  I  shall  go. 
He  thinks  you  will  go. 
I  think  he  will  go. 

Volition  of  the  speaker: 
I  say  you  shall  go. 
I  say  he  shall  go. 


328  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

All  these  noun  clausi-s  may  be  regarded  as  passages  in 
indirect  discourse.  The  forms  for  direct  discourse,  with 
the  subjects  referring  to  the  same  antecedent,  are: 

You  say,  "I  shall  go." 
He  says,  "I  shall  go." 

When  these  are  altered  to  indirect  discourse,  the  quotation 
marks  are  dropped  and  the  pronouns  changed,  but  the  aux- 
iliaries remain  as  before: 

You  say  you  shall  go. 
He  says  he  shall  go. 

All  the  other  forms  may  be  explained  in  the  same  way. 

The  general  rule  of  courtesy  and  the  examples  given 
above  should  settle  all  questions  which  may  arise.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  sentence,  "You  are  the  man  who  will  do  it," 
"will"  in  the  dependent  clause  evidently  expresses  futurity, 
and  "shall"  would  express  tlie  volition  of  the  speaker,  that 
is,  a  command.  Likewise  the  form  for  the  future  is,  "He 
is  the  man  who  will  do  it";  for  the  volition  of  the  speaker, 
"He  is  the  man  who  shall  do  it." 

For  "should"  and  "would"  the  rules  for  "shall"  and 
"will"  generally  apply.  In  independent  sentences  the 
forms  which  correspond  to  the  simple  future  are:  "I 
should,"  "You  would,"  and  "He  would",  volition  of  the 
speaker,  "I  would,"  "You  should,"  and  "He  should."  In 
the  second  and  third  persons  "would,"  especially  when  em- 
phasized, may  express  the  volition  of  the  subject  of  the 
verb.  "You  would  go."  In  the  first  person  when  the  no- 
tion of  volition  is  expressed  in  the  main  verb  or  some  other 
word  of  the  sentence,  the  auxiliary  takes  the  form  corre- 
sponding to  simple  futurity.  Not  "I  would  like  to  go," 
but  "I  sliould  like  to  go." 

In  questions  "should"  is  always  used  for  the  first  jjerson ; 
and  for  the  second  and  third  persons,  the  auxiliary  which  is 
expected  in  the  answer. 

For  dependent  clauses  the  rules  are  exactly  the  same  as 
for  "shall"  and  "will." 

Besides  these  regular  uses  there  are  certain  special  mean- 
ings. 

"Should,"   in    all   persons   and    forms    of   clauses,   often 


WORDS  329 

expresses  obligation,  like  "ought."  "I  should  do  this," 
"You  should  do  this,"  "He  should  do  this." 

"Would"  sometimes  expresses  habitual  or  customary  action 
in  the  past.  "He  would  put  on  his  hat  and  coat  regularly 
every  morning  at  eight  and  start  for  the  office." 

"Would"  also  expresses  a  wish.  "Would  I  had  known 
this  in  time,"  "Would  you  had  known  this  in  time,"  "Would 
he  had  known  this  in  time." 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs. 

Almost,  most. — "Almost"  is  an  adverb,  meaning  "near- 
ly." "He  is  almost  (not  most)  ready."  "Most,"  the  su- 
perlative, means  the  "greatest  number,  quantity,  or  degree." 
"Most  of  us  prefer  play  to  work."  "I  am  most  anxious 
about  his  safety." 

Alone,  only. — "Alone"  means  "unaccompanied,  single 
or  singly,  without  the  aid  or  comfort  of  another."  "He 
rode  all  unarmed  and  he  rode  all  alone."  "Only,"  in  mod- 
ern English,  applies  to  that  of  which  there  is  no  other.  "He 
is  an  only  son." 

Angry,  mad. — "Mad"  means  "insane  or  immoderately 
excited."  In  the  sense  of  "angry"  it  is  not  generally  ac- 
cepted.    "He  is  mad  with  jealousy." 

Apt,  liable,  likely. — "Apt"  implies  natural  disposition, 
tendency,  or  fitness.  "He  is  apt  to  regard  strangers  with 
suspicion."  "Likely"  implies  probability.  It  may  often 
be  substituted  for  apt,  though  it  is  used  where  there  is  no 
natural  tendency  or  inclination.  "He  is  likely  to  go  to 
Cuba  this  winter."  "Liable"  implies  likelihood  of  evil, 
exposure  to  danger.     "He  is  liable  to  suffer  heavy  loss." 

Bound,  determined — "Bound"  means  "under  obligation 
or  necessity."  In  the  sense  of  "determined"  or  "sure"  it  is 
not  generally  accepted  by  writers  of  repute.  "You  are  not 
bound  to  believe  everything  you  see  in  print."  "He  is  de- 
termined to  pay  his  debts  within  the  year." 

Continual,  continuous. — "Continual"  in  modern  English 
is  used  of  frequently  repeated  acts ;  "continuous,"  of  unin- 
terrupted action.  "A  continual  dropping  will  wear  away 
the  hardest  stone."  "There  was  a  continuous  run  on  the 
bank  from  the  opening  hour  to  the  closing." 


330  EN'GLISn    COMPOSITION 

Curious,    funny,    odd,  singular,  strange "Curious," 

"odd,"  and  "singular"  art-  closely  synonymous;  and 
"strange"  often  has  a  similar  meaning.  "Funny,"  meaning 
"eomical  or  laughable,"  is  not  properly  used  for  any  of  the 
other  four;  because  a  thing  may  be  "curious,"  "odd,"  "sin- 
gular," or  "strange,"  without  being  in  the  least  "funny." 

Decided,  decisive. — "Decided"  means  "free  from  ambi- 
guity or  uncertainty,  resolute,  determined,  strong";  it  is 
applicable  to  both  persons  and  things.  "Decisive"  means 
"final,  conclusive,"  and  is  applied  to  things  only.  A  "de- 
cided" victory  is  an  unmistakable  victory;  a  "decisive"  vic- 
tory is  one  that  decides  the  issue  of  the  campaign.  "In  a 
baseball  game  one  side  may  have  a  decided  advantage  in 
each  inning,  but  only  the  last  inning  is  decisive."  "He  is 
a  man  of  decided  opinions."  "The  opinion  of  the  supreme 
court  was  decisive,  for  there  was  no  appeal." 

Definite,  definitive. — "Definite"  means  "certain,  pre- 
cise"; "definitive,"  "determining,  final,  conclusive."  "His 
statement  was  perfectly  definite."  "This  edition  of  Byron 
is  so  well  edited  that  we  may  regard  it  as  definitive." 

Distinct,  distinctive. — "Distinct"  means  "clear,  plain" 
"distinctive,"  "characteristic,  marking  a  distinction."  "His 
enunciation  is  distinct."  "There  was  nothing  distinctive  in 
the  material  or  fashion  of  his  clothes." 

Exceptionable,  exceptional.  —  "Exceptionable"  means 
"open  to  censure,  objectionable";  "exceptional,"  "forming 
an  exception,  not  according  to  rule."  "His  conduct  was 
not  in  the  least  exceptionable."  "This  is  a  book  of  excep- 
tional rarity." 

Healthful,  healthy,  wholesome. — "Healthy"  is  applicable 
to  the  condition  of  mind  or  body;  "healthful,"  to  that  which 
produces  health.  "WHiolesome"  has  the  same  meaning  as 
"healthful,"  but  it  is  generally  applied  to  food  or  drink. 
"He  has  a  healthy  body  because  he  lives  in  a  healthful  cli- 
mate and  eats  wliolesome  food." 

Last,  latest.  —  "Latest,"  like  "late,"  refers  to  time; 
"last"  is  often  used  without  reference  to  time.  "This  is  the 
latest  fashion."     "His  house  is  the  last  on  the  street." 

Plentiful,  plenty,  quite,  rather,  very "Plentiful"  is 

an  adjective.     "Apples  are  plentiful  this  year."     "Plenty," 


WORDS  331 

according  to  best  current  usage,  is  a  noun.  "We  have 
plenty  of  apples."  As  an  adverb  it  is  not  accepted.  "He 
is  plenty  good  enough  for  me"  is  colloquial.  For  this  last 
sentence  the  suitable  word  is  "quite,"  meaning  "wholly, 
entirely."  "Quite,"  however,  is  improperly  used  in  the 
sense  of  "rather"  or  "very."  We  should  not  say  "He  is 
quite  ill,"  but  "He  is  rather  ill"  or  "very  ill." 

Practicable,  practical. — "Practicable"  means  "capable 
of  being  carried  out,  feasible";  "practical"  is  the  opposite 
of  "theoretical"  or  "speculative."  "That  plan  is  prac- 
ticable."    "The  engine  was  built  by  a  practical  machinist." 

Real,  really. — "Real"  is  an  adjective.  It  should  not  be 
used  for  the  adverb  "really"  or  for  "very"  or  "rather." 
"He  is  very  (not  real)  ill." 

Some,  somewhat.  —  "Some"  is  an  adjective ;  "some- 
what," an  adverb.  They  are  not  interchangeable.  "He  is 
somewhat  (not  some)  better." 

Prepositions. 

Among,  between. — "Between"  is  used  with  two  persons 
or  things ;  "among,"  with  more  than  two. 

In,  into. — ^"He  went  into  the  room  an  hour  ago,  and  he 
is  still  sitting  in  it." 

Conjunctions 

As — as,  SO — as. — "So"  is  generally  used  after  a  negative. 
"He  is  as  well  grounded  in  grammar  as  his  brother,  but  he 
is  not  so  quick  in  arithmetic." 

As,  that. — "As"  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  for  the 
pronoun  "that"  and  for  the  conjunction  "that."  "He  is  the 
man  that  (not  as)  takes  care  of  the  furnace."  "  I  do  not 
know  that  (not  as)  I  shall  come." 

Nor,  or. — "Nor"  is  the  correlative  of  "  neither"  ;  "or," 
of  "either." 

Unless,  without.  —  The  preposition  "without"  cannot, 
according  to  modern  usage,  be  substituted  for  the  conjunc- 
tion "unless."  "I  will  not  go  with  you  imless  (not  rvithout) 
you  call  for  me." 


332  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

Certain  other  improprieties  are  harder  to  detect  be- 
cause the  words  are  not  perhaps  absolutely  wrong ;  they 
are  merely  long  and  pretentious  when  they   should  be 
short   and    simple.      Some   writers   make   every    man    a 
"gentleman,"  every  woman  a  "lady" ;  every  social  gath- 
ering a  "function,"  at  which  an  "elegant  collation"  is 
served;  every  public  dinner  a  "banquet,"  at  which  the 
tables  are  "graced  with  the  finest  delicacies  and  most  ex- 
pensive beverages";   every   house  a  "stately  residence" 
or  "mansion";   every   open-handed   man   a   "benevolent 
philanthropist,"    who    "donates    liberally."      Now    for 
the  every-day  business  of  life  many  words — "father,"  ' 
"mother,"    "home,"    "room,"    "bed,"     "eat,"    "drink," 
"sleep,"   "walk,"  "run,"  "sit" — are  common  and  often 
short  derivatives  from  Anglo-Saxon  roots.    On  the  other 
hand,  the  vocabulary  of  law,  theology,  philosophy,  the 
arts,  and  the  sciences — such  words  as  "allegation,"  "irre- 
spective," "tendency,"  "ultimate,"  "consequence,"  "inci- 
dentally," "formulate" — is  derived  mainly  from  Latin 
and    Greek.      These    high-sounding   derivatives    are,   in 
their  place,  exactly  as  good  as  those  from  Anglo-Saxon. 
The  sole  question  is  as  to  appropriateness.     One  must 
not,  as  Goldsmith  put  it,  make  the  little  fishes  talk  like 
whales.    Of  the  following  passages  (both  from  the  same 
book,  Josiah  Royce's  Religious  Aspect  of  Philosophy) 
one  contains  a  large  proportion  of  words  from  the  Latin, 
the  other  from  the  Anglo-Saxon;  yet  each  vocabulary 
is  suitable  to  the  topic. 

Evolution  and  prof^ross:  what  do  the  terms  respectively 
mean?  Rvolution.  we  Irani,  is  an  increase  in  the  complex- 
ity, definiteness,  individuality,  and  organic  connection  of 
phenomena.      But   progress   is   any   series  of  changes   that 


WORDS  333 

meets  with  the  constantly  increasing  approval  of  somebody. 
The  growth  of  a  tree  or  of  a  thistle  is  an  evolution.  The 
climbing  of  a  hill  for  some  purpose  may  throughout  be  a 
progress.  Evolution  may  or  may  not  meet  with  the  approval 
of  anybody ;  and  a  pessimist  might  fully  accept  some  pro- 
posed law  of  evolution.  But  unless  there  is  some  approval 
from  some  source^  we  have  no  progress. 

And  so  at  worst  we  are  like  a  child  who  has  come  to  the 
palace  of  the  king  on  the  day  of  his  wedding,  bearing  roses 
as  a  gift  to  grace  the  feast.  For  the  child,  waiting  inno- 
cently to  see  whether  the  king  will  not  appear  and  praise 
the  welcome  flowers,  grows  at  last  weary  with  watching  all 
day  and  with  listening  to  harsh  words  outside  the  palace 
gate,  amid  the  jostling  crowd.  And  so  in  the  evening  it 
falls  asleep  beneath  the  great  dark  walls,  unseen  and  for- 
gotten ;  and  the  withering  roses  by  and  by  fall  from  its  lap, 
and  are  scattered  by  the  wind  into  the  dusty  highway,  there 
to  be  trodden  under  foot  and  destroyed.  Yet  all  this  hap- 
pens only  because  there  are  infinitely  fairer  treasures  within 
the  palace  than  the  ignorant  child  could  bring. 

Few  writers  err  by  using  words  that  are  too  simple; 
most  of  the  mistakes  are  in  the  other  direction.  Old  and 
young  are  likely  to  be  captivated  by  sesquipedalian  and 
sonorous  derivatives  and  to  employ  them  too  freely.  A 
wise  precaution,  therefore,  especially  in  all  writing  that 
deals  with  conniion  affairs — ordinary  narration,  descrip- 
tion, and  exposition — is  to  give  preference  to  short  and 
simple  words.  On  this  point  James  Russell  Lowell 
offers  some  pertinent  hints  in  the  introduction  to  The 
Bigloza  Papers,  Second  Series : 

But  while  the  schoolmaster  has  been  busy  starching  our 
language  and  smoothing  it  flat  with  the  mangle  of  a  sup- 
posed classical  authority,  the  newspaper  reporter  has  been 
doing  even  more  harm  by  stretching  and  swelling  it  to  suit 
his  occasions.     A  dozen  years  ago  I  began  a  list,  which  I 


334 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


have  added  to  from  time  to  time^  of  some  of  the  changes 
which  may  be  fairly  laid  at  his  door.  I  give  a  few  of  them 
as  showing  their  tendency,  all  the  more  dangerous  that 
their  efl'ect,  like  that  of  some  poisons,  is  insensibly  cumu- 
lative, and  that  they  are  sure  at  last  of  effect  among  a 
people  whose  chief  reading  is  the  daily  paper.  I  give  in 
two  columns  the  old  style  and  its  modern  equivalent. 


OLD    STYLE 


Was  hanged. 

When  the  halter  was  put 
round  his  neck. 


A    great    crowd    came    to 
see. 

Great  fire. 

The  fire  spread. 

House   burned. 

The  fire  was  got  under. 


Man  fell. 

A    horse    and    wagon    ran 
against. 


The  frightened  horse. 
Sent  for  the  doctor. 


The  mayor  of  the  city  in 
a  short  speech  welcomed. 


NEW    STYLE 

Was  launched  into  eter- 
nity. 

When  the  fatal  noose  was 
adjusted  about  the  neck  of 
the  unfortunate  victim  of 
his  own  unbridled  passions. 

A  vast  concourse  was  as- 
sembled to  witness. 

Disastrous  conflagration. 

The  conflagration  extend- 
ed its  devastating  career. 

Edifice  consumed. 

The  progress  of  the  de- 
vouring element  was  arrest- 
ed. 

Individual  was  precipi- 
tated. 

A  valuable  horse  attached 
to  a  vehicle  driven  by  J.  S., 
in  the  employment  of  J.  B., 
collided   with. 

The   infuriated   animal. 

Called  into  requisition  the 
services  of  the  family  physi- 
cian. 

The  chief  magistrate  of 
the  metropolis,  in  well- 
chosen  and  eloquent  lan- 
guage, frequently  interrupt- 
ed by  the  j^laudits  of  the 
surging  multitude,  officially 
tendered  the  hospitalities. 


woKDS  335 

I  shall  say  a  few  words.  I  shall,  with  your  permis- 

sion, beg  leave  to  ofter  some 
brief  observations. 

Began  his  answer.  Commenced  his  rejoinder. 

A  bystander  advised.  One  of  those  omnipresent 

characters  who,  as  if  in  pur- 
suance of  some  previous  ar- 
rangement, are  certain  to  be 
encountered  in  the  vicinity 
when  an  accident  occurs, 
ventured  the  suggestion. 

He  died.  He    deceased,    he    passed 

out  of  existence,  his  spirit 
quitted  its  earthly  habita- 
tion, winged  its  way  to  eter- 
nity, shook  off  its  burden, 
etc. 

In  the  thirty-five  years  and  more  since  the  publication 
of  The  Biglow  Papers,  the  reporters  have  been  busier 
than  ever,  and  they  have  been  ably  assisted  by  popular 
novelists. 

Good  use  sanctions  the  idioms,  that  is,  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  language.  Every  language  contains  many 
phrases  which  are  hard  to  explain  logically.  In  certain 
constructions  words  acquire  a  curious  twist  of  meaning, 
and  the  grammatical  relations  may  violate  ordinary 
rules.  When  these  irregular  turns  of  phrase  become 
national  and  reputable,  they  are — rules  or  no  rules — as 
proper  as  proper  can  be.  Indeed,  these  homely,  racy 
idioms  are  the  best  kind  of  English,  for  they  substitute 
for  stiff  formality  the  ease  and  vigor  of  popular  speech. 

Appended  are  some  of  the  more  noteworthy  idioms : 

"and"  with  a  finite  verb,  instead  of  "to"  with  the  infini- 
tive, after  "come,"  "go,"  "send,"  and  "try."  "I  hope  you 
will  try  and  do  the  work  to-day." 


336  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

as  it  were 

beck  and  call 

by  dint  of 

by  hook  or  b}'  crook 

cheek  by  jowl 

curry  favor 

dance  attendance 

"either"  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  as  in  "He  will  not  come 
either." 

"either  side"  for  "each  side"  or  "both  sides." 

else's.      "This  is  not  anybody  else's  book." 

ever  and  anon 

every  other  day 

fall  asleep 

forget  oneself 

get  rid  of 

"given"  in  such  a  construction  as  "I  am  given  a  horse." 

go  hard  with  one 

had  better 

had  rather 

hard  put  to  it 

How  do  you  do? 

hue  and  cry 

in  high  dudgeon 

in  our  midst 

in   the  thick  of  it 

in  this  connection 

kith  and  kin 

make  off.     "The  thief  made  off  with  the  booty." 

many  a 

not  a  whit 

of  mine,  of  yours,  of  his,  of  theirs.  "He  is  a  friend  of 
mine." 

"once"  in  the  sense  of  "if  ever"  or  "whenever."  "Once 
you  give  him  an  inch  he  will  take  an  ell." 

out  of  one's  head 

"over"  in  the  sense  of  "more  than."  "He  lost  over  half 
his  fortune." 

I)ut  to  death 

scrape  acquaintance 

"since"  for  "ago."     "The  train  left  an  hour  since." 

spick  and  span 


WORDS  337 

"take  it"  as  in  "You  mean,  I  take  it,  to  spend  another 
year  in  study." 

"then"  for  "then  existing."  "It  was  the  letter  of  the 
noble  lord  upon  the  floor  and  of  all  the  king's  then  minis- 
ters."— Edmund  Burke  in  American  Taxation. 

tit  for  tat 

to  and  fro 

to  the  top  of  his  bent 

turn  the  tables 

under  the  circumstances 

"whether  or  no"  for  "whether  or  not." 

"write  you"  for  "write  to  you." 

Good  use  prescribes  the  rules  for  capitalization.  For 
two  centuries  there  has  been  a  steady  tendency  to  employ 
capitals  less  freely ;  and  even  within  twenty  years  there 
has  been  a  noticeable  change.  Hence  in  doubtful  cases 
one  may  safely  use  a  small  letter.  The  principal  rules 
are: 

1.  Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of 

a.  Every  sentence. 

b.  Every  line  of  poetry. 

c.  Every   direct  quotation. 

d.  Every  direct  question. 

e.  Every  phrase  or  clause  when  separately  para- 

graphed, as  in  this  list. 

2.  All  proper  nouns  and  words  derived  from  them 
begin  with  capitals. 

China,  Chinese;  Confucius,  Confucian;  Wesley,  Wes- 
leyan;  Pennsylvania,  Pennsylvanian. 

The  words  "north,"  "south,"  "east,"  and  "west," 
when  they  designate  sections  of  the  country,  are  proper 
nouns ;  when  they  designate  points  of  the  compass, 
common. 


338  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

The  West  and  the  South  are  overtaking  the  North  in  cer- 
tain lines  of  manufacturing. 

Massachusetts  lies  north  of  Connecticut. 

The  various  names  of  the  Deity,  such  as  "God," 
"Christ,"  "Saviour,"  "Son  of  Man,"  "lamb  of  God," 
and  "Holy  Ghost,"  are  proper  nouns.  Pronouns  which 
refer  to  the  Deity  are  also  capitalized,  though  there  is 
a  rapidly  growing  tendency  to  write  them  with  small 
letters.  The  word  "devil,"  meaning  specifically  "Satan," 
is  a  proper  noun. 

The  names  of  days,  months,  and  holidays  are  proper 
nouns ;  the  names  of  seasons,  common. 

Washington's  Birthday,  which  comes  in  February,  falls  on 
Sunday  this  winter. 

The  words  "river,"  "sea,"  "gulf,"  "mountain," 
"street,"  etc.,  when  used  to  form  proper  names,  are  capi- 
talized; when  used  in  a  general  sense,  they  are  common 
nouns. 

The  cross  streets  of  New  York  run  west  to  the  Hudson 
River.  At  the  foot  of  Twenty-third  Street  are  several 
ferry  slips.  The  river  itself  rises  in  the  Adirondack  Moun- 
tains and  flows  through  New  York  Bay  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  This  bay,  though  by  no  means  the  largest  along 
the  coast,  is  commercially  the  most  important. 

Names  of  important  historic  events  and  of  famous 
documents  are  regarded  as  proper  nouns.  But  such 
terms  as  the  "eighteenth  century"  and  the  "middle 
ages"  are  now  generally  classed  with  common  nouns. 

The  Reformation  occurred  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


WORDS  339 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  has  often  been  com- 
pared to  the  Magna  Charta. 

The  Civil  War  settled  the  contest  over  slavery  in  the 
United  States. 

Names  of  things  strongly  personified  are  proper 
nouns,  for  they  are,  in  a  sense,  names  of  persons ;  but  if 
the  idea  of  personality  is  not  very  distinct,  the  nouns  are 
common. 

Of  those  fierce  darts  Despair  at  me  doth  throw. 
I  am  overcome  by  despair. 

3.  In  titles  of  books,  periodical  publications,  poems, 
and  other  articles  every  noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  verb, 
and  adverb  begins  with  a  capital.  In  library  lists,  how- 
ever, this  rule  is  often  disregarded.  The  words  "Bible," 
"Scriptures,"  "Old  Testament,"  and  the  names  of  the 
several  books  of  the  Bible  are  capitalized  like  other  titles. 
In  order  to  set  titles  off  from  the  context  they  are  usually 
italicized  or  else  enclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

4.  Official  titles,  titles  of  respect,  and  the  abbrevia- 
tions of  such  titles,  of  college  degrees,  and  of  the  names 
of  learned  societies  are  capitalized. 

Several  universities  have  conferred  on  General  Nelson  A. 
Miles  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

Charles  Darwin,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

When  such  titles  as  "senator,"  "colonel,"  and  "gov- 
ernor" are  not  connected  with  a  name,  they  generally 
take  the  small  letter.  In  England  the  reigning  king  is 
called  "the  King" ;  in  this  country  the  president  in  office, 
"the  President." 


340  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

5.  The  words  "I"  and  "O"  are  always  written  with 
capitiils. 

58.  Kinds  of  Words Within  the  hmits  of  good  use 

there  is  a  wide  range  in  the  choice  of  words.  For  cer-. 
tain  topics,  as  we  have  seen,  sliort  and  simple  words  are 
the  most  suitable;  for  other  topics,  the  longer  Latin 
derivatives.  Whatever  the  topic,  the  right  word  is  that 
which  presents  the  idea  most  precisely.  The  sentence, 
"The  horse  is  coming  down  the  street,"  is  not  so  precise, 
not  so  vivid,  as  "The  horse  is  galloping  down  the  street." 
The  reason  is  that  "coming"  is  a  general  word,  covering 
all  kinds  of  locomotion :  the  horse  may  be  walking,  trot- 
ting, or  pacing — all  included  under  "coming,"  which 
conveys  the  notion  rather  hazily.  "Galloping,"  how- 
ever, describes  but  one  gait  and  thus  forms  in  the  mind 
a  more  sharply  defined  picture.  "Galloping"  we  call  a 
specific  word  because  it  specifies  the  idea  exactly.  From 
this  example  it  is  evident  that  one  secret  of  a  vivid  and 
interesting,  as  opposed  to  a  colorless  and  dull,  style,  is 
to  employ,  whenever  possible,  a  specific  rather  than  a 
general  word.  The  difference  in  effect  is  shown  in  the 
following  passages: 

GENERAL  SPECIFIC 

All  at  once  I  saw  two  fig-  All  at  once  I  saw  two  fig- 
ures: one  a  man  who  was  ures:  one  a  little  man  who 
coming  east,  and  the  other  a  was  stumping  along  east- 
girl  who  was  coming  down  ward  at  a  good  walk,  and 
a  cross  street.  Well,  sir,  the  other  a  girl  of  maybe 
the  two  came  together  natu-  eight  or  ten  who  was  run- 
rally  enough  at  the  corner ;  ning  as  hard  as  she  was  able 
and  then  came  the  unpleas-  down  a  cross  street.  Well, 
ant  part  of  the  thing;  for  sir,  the  two  ran  into  one  an- 
the    man    walked    over    the  other    naturally    enough    at 


WORDS 


341 


child  and  left  her  making  a 
noise  on  the  ground.  It 
does  not  sound  very  bad,  but 
it  was  disagreeable  to  see. 


the  corner;  and  then  came 
the  horrible  part  of  the 
thing;  for  the  man  trampled 
calmly  over  the  child's  body 
and  left  her  screaming  on 
the  ground.  It  sounds  noth- 
ing to  hear,  but  it  was  hell- 
ish to  see. 


The  Imperial  Guard  went 
up  Saint  Jean,  in  order  to 
expel  the  English  from  that 
height,  which  they  had  been 
holding.  Without  being 
frightened  by  the  firing,  the 
troops  went  up  the  hill. 
They  were  nearly  up  when 
they  hesitated  and  then 
stopped.  The       English 

came  out  and  drove  them 
back. 

Everything  was  quiet  at 
Brussels.  Night  came;  and 
Amelia  was  thinking  about 
George,  who  was  dead. 


The  columns  of  the  Im- 
perial Guard  marched  up 
the  hill  of  Saint  Jean,  at 
length  and  at  once  to  sweep 
the  English  from  the  height 
which  they  had  maintained 
all  day,  and  in  spite  of  all: 
unscared  by  the  thunder  of 
the  artillery,  which  hurled 
death  from  the  English  line, 
the  dark  rolling  column 
pressed  on  and  up  the  hill. 
It  seemed  almost  to  crest 
the  eminence,  when  it  be- 
gan to  waver  and  falter. 
Then  it  stopped,  still  facing 
the  shot.  Then  at  last  the 
English  troops  rushed  from 
the  post  from  which  no  en- 
emy had  been  able  to  dis- 
lodge them,  and  the  Guard 
turned  and   fled. 

No  more  firing  was  heard 
at  Brussels^ — the  pursuit 
rolled  miles  away.  Dark- 
ness came  down  on  the  field 
and  city:  and  Amelia  was 
praying  for  George,  who 
was  lying  on  his  face,  dead, 
with  a  bullet  through  his 
heart.  —  William  Make- 
peace Thackeray  in  Van- 
ity Fair. 


342 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION" 


There  were  tables  under 
the  trees  at  Annandale,  and 
the  jewelry  was  exhibited 
there.  Miss  Beighton  fitted 
her  arrows  carefully.  She 
could  shoot  well,  and  her 
bow  was  all  right.  She 
missed  the  target  several 
times  and  hit  the  white  sev- 
eral times.  But  as  she 
should  have  hit  the  gold 
and  won  the  jewelry,  Barr- 
Saggott  was  unhappy. 
Then  she  missed  some  more; 
and  the  company  was  sur- 
prised, and  her  mother  was 
disturbed. 


There     were     beautifully 
arranged     tea-tables     under 
the    deodars    at    Annandale, 
where    the    grand    stand    is 
now;    and,    alone    in    all   its 
glory,   winking   in   the   sun, 
sat  the  diamond  bracelet  in 
a  blue  velvet  case.  .  .  .  Miss 
Beighton    fitted    her    arrows 
with    immense    deliberation, 
so   that   everyone   might  see 
what   she   was    doing.      She 
was  a  perfect  shot;  and  her 
forty-six   pound   bow   suited 
her  to  a  nicety.     She  pinned 
the  wooden  legs  of  the  tar- 
get   with    great    care    four 
successive    times.      She 
pinned    the    wooden    top    of 
the  target  once,  and  all  the 
ladies  looked  at  each  other. 
Then  she  began  some  fancy 
shooting  at  the  white,  which, 
if  you  hit  it,  counts  exactly 
one  point.     She  put  five  ar- 
rows into  the  white.     It  was 
wonderful       archery ;       but, 
seeing  that  her  business  was 
to    make    "golds"    and    win 
the    bracelet,     Barr-Saggott 
turned  a  delicate  green  like 
young     water-grass.       Next 
she    shot    over    the    target 
twice,  and  then  wide  to  the 
left  twice — always  with  the 
same    deliberation — while    a 
chilly    hush     fell     over    the 
company,   and    Mrs.    Beigh- 
ton   took    out    her    handker- 
chief.— RuDYARD      Kipling 
in   Cupid's   Arrows. 


VVOKDS 


343 


Specific  words  so  invigorate  a  style  that  one  should 
make  a  particular  point  of  using  them.  Time  is  well 
spent  in  running  over  the  first  draft  of  a  theme  and 
trying  to  substitute  specific  words  for  general.  A  fairly 
complete  list  of  general,  with  the  corresponding  specific, 
words,  would  fill  a  book ;  but  a  dozen  examples  are 
enough  to  serve  as  suggestions.  Even  this  short  list  is 
very  imperfect ;  for  still  more  specific  terms  may  be  found 
for  a  number  of  the  words  in  the  second  column,  such  as 
"electrical  engineer"  and  "locomotive  engineer"  for 
"engineer,"  "molasses  cake"  and  "sponge  cake"  for 
"cake,"  and  "greasy"  and  "muddy"  for  "dii'ty." 


GENERAL 


wild  animal 

dog 

food 

pleasant  day 
building 


Clergyman,  teacher, 
banker,  clerk,  tramp,  ruffian, 
beggar,  driver,  conductor, 
engineer,  carpenter,  milk- 
man, etc. 

wolf,  bear,  rabbit,  fox, 
porcupine,  squirrel,  skunk, 
opossum,  gopher,  etc. 

fox  terrier,  dachshund, 
greyhound,  Irish  setter,  wa- 
ter-spaniel, etc. 

bread,  cake,  rolls,  muffins, 
beef,  veal,  lamb,  chicken, 
turkey,  soup,  oranges,  nuts, 
etc. 

sunny,  warm,  deliciously 
cool,  breezy,  invigorating, 
etc. 

wooden  house,  stone 
church,  stable,  shed,  shop, 
brick  block,  sky-scraper, 
railway-station,  warehouse, 
saw-mill,  factory,  dormi- 
tory, recitation-hall,  etc. 


344  ENGLISH    COMPOSITIOX 

tree  maple,  oak,  elm,  hemlock, 

spruce,  pine,  horse-chestnut, 
hickory,  larch,  dog-wood, 
birch,  ash,  etc. 

boat  steamer,      launch,      ferry- 

boat, tug,  bark,  sloop,  cat- 
boat,  row-boat,  scow,  bafge, 
canal-boat,  etc. 

see  catch     sight     of,     watch, 

stare  at,  glance  at,  glare  at, 
spy  upon,  observe,  discover, 
etc. 

get  seize,  catch,  grasp,  clutch, 

snatch,  capture,  arrest,  gain, 
procure,  earn,  win,  etc. 

good  of  men  —  honest,  kind, 

true,  generous,  faithful;  of 
food  —  delicious,  well- 
cooked,  wholesome;  of 
horses  —  well-formed, 
sound,  well-broken,  swift ; 
of  children  —  obedient, 
truthful,  unselfish;  of 
books  —  interesting,  stimu- 
lating, amusing,  edifying, 
humorous,  pathetic  ;  of 
workmen — skilful,  dexter- 
ous, accurate,  rapid,  in- 
genious, etc. 

disagreeable  of   men  —  surly,   rude, 

bearish,  impudent,  ill-bred, 
ill-tempered ;  of  weather — 
wet,  hot,  cold,  foggy,  pene- 
trating, tempestuous ;  of 
work — exhausting,  danger- 
ous, dirty,  unwholesome, 
etc. 

Figurative  words  also  inviooratc  a  style.  In  ordinary 
prose  elaborately  figurative  language  is  out  of  place. 
When  speaking  of  reading  The  Arabian  Xights  in  child- 


AVORDS  345 

hood,  one  does  not  say  (except  in  verse),  "When  the 
breeze  of  a  joyful  dawn  blew  free  in  the  silken  sail  of 
infancy,  the  tide  of  time  flow'd  back  with  me,  the  for- 
ward-flowing tide  of  time ;  and  many  a  sheeny  summer- 
morn  adown  the  Tigris  I  was  borne."  That  way  of  ex- 
pressing the  idea  is  too  complicated  and  roundabout. 
But  figures  which  are  simple  and  direct  may  often  make 
writing  more  vivid  and  lively.  In  the  passage  from 
Kipling,  342,  "winking"  is  of  course  figurative;  and  the 
comparison,  "a  delicate  green  like  young  water-grass" 
is  the  figure  called  simile.  In  the  quotation  from  Thack- 
eray, 341,  "sweep"  and  "thunder,"  both  slightly  figura- 
tive, are  stronger  words  than  "drive"  and  "noise."  A 
simile  that  brings  to  mind  a  familiar  or  striking  image, 
as  we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  description,  99,  100, 
is  often  very  illuminating.  And  even  when  there  is  no 
direct  comparison,  the  suggestion  of  one  in  some  figura- 
tive turn  of  j^hrase  may  answer  the  purpose  fully  as  well. 
The  following  passages  owe  much  of  their  interest  to  the 
choice  of  figurative  rather  than  dryly  literal  words : 

I  was  drinking  in  his  words,  and  smiling  away,  as  con- 
ceited as  a  cock  upon  a  wall,  when,  all  in  a  breath,  back 
went  his  right  hand  over  his  shoulder.  Something  sang 
like  an  arrow  through  the  air;  I  felt  a  blow  and  then  a 
sharp  pang,  and  there  I  was  pinned  by  the  shoulder  to  the 
mast. — Robert  Louis  Stevenson  in  Treasure  Island. 


An  oppressive  slumber  hung  about  the  forest-branches. 
In  the  dells  and  on  the  heights  was  the  same  dead  heat. 
Here  where  the  brook  tinkled  it  was  no  cool-lipped  sound, 
but  metallic,  and  without  the  spirit  of  water.  Yonder  in  a 
space  of  moonlight  on  lush  grass  the  beams  were  as  white 
■fire  to  sight  and  feeling. — George  Meredith  in  The 
Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel. 


346  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

High  up  against  the  horizon  were  the  huge  conical 
masses  of  hill,  like  giant  mounds  intended  to  fortify  this 
region  of  corn  and  grass  against  the  keen  and  hungry  winds 
of  the  north;  not  distant  enough  to  be  clothed  in  purple 
mystery,  but  with  sombre  greenish  sides  visibly  specked  with 
sheep,  whose  motion  was  only  revealed  by  memory,  not  de- 
tected by  sight;  wooed  from  day  to  day  by  the  changing 
hours,  but  responding  with  no  change  in  themselves — left 
forever  grim  and  sullen  after  the  flush  of  morning,  the 
winged  gleams  of  the  April  noonday,  the  parting  crimson 
glory  of  the  ripening  summer  sun. — George  Eliot  in 
Adam  Bede. 

Figures  should  be  employed  with  caution,  for  fear  of 
giving  the  reader  too  niucli  of  a  good  thing.  It  is  easy 
to  become  too  flowery ;  and,  what  with  "rainbows  of 
hope"  and  the  "swift  shuttles  of  the  loom  of  eternity," 
to  fall  into  language  which  is  so  trite  as  to  have  lost 
significance,  or  is  adapted  only  to  poetry  or  impassioned 
oratory.  There  is  also  danger  of  mixing  figures  that 
are  incongruous,  such  as  "The  old  war-horse  was  waving 
his  hand  from  the  deck  of  the  sinking  ship,"  or  "He 
plunged  into  the  whirlpool  of  politics  and  soon  reached 
the  top  of  the  ladder."  But  one  need  never  hesitate  over 
a  figure  that  really  freshens  and  vivifies  what  might 
otherwise  be  commonplace. 

59.  Enlarging  the  Vocabulary. — In  order  to  write 
clearly  and  interestingly  one  needs,  even  for  every-day 
things,  a  copious  vocabulary.  Constant  repetition  of 
a  few  stock  phrases  makes  a  theme  seem  feeble  and 
childish  though  the  subject-matter  itself  may  be  tolera- 
ble. To  avoid  repetition  by  resorting  to  some  long  rig- 
marole, or  using  words  which  fail  to  express  the  mean- 
ing precisely,  is  no  gain.  Of  course  words  must  be 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary  for  emphasis  or  clearness. 


WOKDS  347 

But  unnecessary  repetition — the  common  fault — is  due 
to  a  limited  vocabulary. 

A  person's  vocabulary  may  be  enlarged  by  two 
methods.  The  first  is  by  listening  carefully  to  the  talk 
of  well-educated  people  and  reading  well-written  books. 
Nearly  everybody  understands  thousands  of  words  which 
he  is  not  accustomed  to  use.  If  a  boy  of  fifteen  could 
summon  to  mind  all  the  words  he  has  ever  heard  or  seen, 
he  would  seldom  be  at  a  loss  for  an  apt  expression.  The 
average  boy  could  recall  many  more  than  he  does  if  he 
would  deliberately  try  to  remember  words,  cultivate  a 
memory  for  them,  and  thus  steadily  add  to  the  number 
which  he  can  employ  intelligently. 

The  second  method  is  to  study  dictionaries  and  books 
of  synonyms.  Some  writers  always  keep  at  their  elbow 
a  pocket-dictionary,  which  is  easy  to  consult.  A  con- 
venient little  volume  is  L.  J.  Campbell's  Handbook  of 
English  Synonyms  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston).  This 
contains  no  definitions,  but  it  gives  lists  of  words  of  simi- 
lar meaning;  for  example: 

Abandon,  forsake,  desert,  leave,  depart  from,  relinquish, 
discontinue,  cease,  quit,  retire,  resign,  renounce,  give  up, 
surrender,  forego,  repudiate,  cast  off,  abjure,  forswear. 

By  consulting  this  book  one  can  often  hit  upon  a  more 
appropriate  word  than  one  had  first  thought  of.  A  stu- 
dent who  will  take  the  trouble  to  look  up  in  this  or  any 
other  reference-book  the  synonyms  for  all  the  principal 
words  of  his  theme  will  both  improve  his  style  and  in- 
crease his  vocabulary. 


348  ENGLISH    CO:*l  POSITION 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  What  does  good  use  require  in  regard  to  words? 

2.  Give  several  examples  of  newly  coined  words  which  have  not 
yet  come  into- reputable  use;  several  which  are  already  accepted  by 
careful  writers. 

3.  Give  several  examples  of  words  which  are  peculiar  to  a  place, 
a  trade,  or  a  science,  and  are  therefore  not  in  national  use. 

4.  What  is  a  barbarism?     What  is  an  impropriety? 

5.  Give  several  examples  of  barbarisms  and  improprieties  which 
you  have  heard. 

6.  Write  sentences  in  which  you  use  correctly  each  of  the  words 
discussed  on  pages  319  to  331. 

7.  Give  the  rules  for  "shall,"  "will,"  "should,"  and  "would." 

8.  Fill  the  blanks  of  the  following  sentences  with  either  "shall" 
or  "will"  : 

We  regret  coining  bj'  this  route  if  the  train  is  de- 
layed. 

You be  likely  to  lose  your  money  in  that  venture. 

He be  eighteen  years  old  next  June. 

He  always  take  the  eight  o'clock  train,  no  matter 

what  the  weather  is. 

He  is  a  very  determined  man  and accomplish  what- 
ever he  sets  out  to  do. 

I  am  eager  to  see  the  game  and go  if  I  can  possibly 

find  time. 

You (volition  of  the  speaker)  be  severely  punished 

for  disobedience  of  this  law. 

He  (prophecy)   rue  the  day  that  he  was  guilty  of 

such  injustice. 

I be  delighted  to  spend  Sunday  at  your  house. 

I  buy  this  book  for  you? 

you  be  sorry  to  leave  school  ? 

you  kindly  call  at  my  office  this  afternoon? 

he  be  able  to  reach  New  York  to-day? 

If  I  be  able  to  spend  a  month  in  Denver,  I  

have  to  be  content  with  that. 

When  you  be  twenty-one,  you  be  your  own 

master. 

Whether  he go  to  college  or  enter  his  father's  busi- 
ness, he  finish  his  high-school  course. 


WORDS  349 

Whenever  I  sell  my  horse  I  can  get  at  least  $250 

for  it. 

If  you  only  promise  to  come  to-morrow,   we  can 

carry  out  the  plan. 

In  case  she  allow  her  daughter  to  study  music,  we 

be  glad  to  change  the  hour  of  the  class. 

I  hope  I  catch  my  train. 

You  fear  you  be  compelled  by  ill  health   to  drop 

your  algebra. 

He  expects  that  he finish  his  Virgil  this  month. 

I  have  determined  that  I  not  wait  any  longer. 

You  have  made  up  your  mind,  I  understand,  that  you 
not  pay  so  much  for  a  dress. 

He  has  reached  the  conclusion  that  he  not  try  for 

the  team. 

He  says  you  make  yourself  sick  by  eating  candy. 

He  apparently  expects  that  he live  to  be  a  hundred. 

I  am  afraid  that  you be  late  to  school. 

He  is  afraid  that  he be  late  to  school. 

9.  Construct  sentences  illustrating  the  correct  use  of  "should" 
and  "would." 

JO.  For  what  topics  are  Anglo-Saxon  derivatives,  and  for  what 
are  Latin  derivatives  generally  most  suitable? 

11.  What  is  the  fault  of  the  following  passage? 

Whereas,  None  nobler  than  he  has  ever  sought  for  the 
refreshment  that  is  of  transcendental  worth  to  those  who 
would  crave  to  comprehend  the  mysticism  and  simj^lify  the 
multiphased  complexity  of  our  ancient  order,  by  demon- 
strating its  beautiful  nobility  to  the  uninitiated; 

Resolved,  That  it  is  imperative  that  we,  while  humbly 
bowing  to  the  inscrutable  dispensations  of  infinite  wisdom, 
should  testify  our  profound  sensibility  of  the  worth  of  our 
illustrious  and  lamented  brother,  whose  distinguished 
career  was  characterized  by  indefatigable  labors  and  undi- 
minished zeal  in  advancing  the  interests  of  our  ancient  and 
noble  order. 

12.  What  are  idioms? 

13.  Give  the  rules  for  capitalization  and  examples  illustrating 
each  rule. 


350  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

14.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  general  and  a  specific  word? 
Illustrate  by  examples. 

15.  Write  a  description  containing  between  one  and  two  hundred 
words,  each  as  specific  as  possible. 

16.  Give  from  your  reading  a  few  figurative  phrases  that  are  suit- 
able for  ordinary  prose. 

17.  What  are  the  suggestions  for  enlarging  a  vocabulary? 


CHAPTER    IX 

LETTER    FORMS 

60.  Familiar  Letters. — A  familiar  letter  to  a  friend  or 
relative,  though  it  should  be  neither  ungrammatical  nor 
slovenly,  should  be  so  informal  in  style  that  it  suggests 
agreeable  talk  transferred  to  paper.  One  of  Macaulay's 
letters  to  his  sisters  will  serve  as  a  type : 

London,  July  2,  1832. 
My  dear  Sisters, — 

I  am,  I  think,  a  better  correspondent  than  you  two  put 
together.  I  will  venture  to  say  that  I  have  written  more 
letters  by  a  good  many  than  I  have  received,  and  this  with 
India  and  the  Edinburgh  Review  on  my  hands;  the  Life 
of  Mirabeau  to  be  criticised;  the  Rajah  of  Travancore  to 
be  kept  in  order;  and  the  bad  money  which  the  Emperor 
of  the  Burmese  has  had  the  impudence  to  send  us  by  way 
of  tribute,  to  be  exchanged  for  better.  You  have  nothing 
to  do  but  to  be  good,  and  write.  Make  no  excuses,  for 
your  excuses  are  contradictory.  If  you  see  sights,  describe 
them;  for  then  you  have  subjects.  If  you  stay  at  home, 
write;  for  then  you  have  time.  Remember  that  I  never 
saw  the  cemetery  or  the  railroad.  Be  particular,  above  all, 
in  your  accounts  of  the  Quakers.  I  enjoin  this  especially 
on  Nancy;  for  from  Meg  I  have  no  hope  of  extracting  a 
word  of  truth. 

I  dined  yesterday  at  Holland  House;  all  lords  except 
myself:  Lord  Radnor,  Lord  Poltimore,  Lord  King,  Lord 
Russell,  and  his  uncle  Lord  John.  Lady  Holland  was  very 
gracious,  praised  my  article  on  Burleigh  to  the  skies,  and 
told  me,  among  other  things,  that  she  had  talked  on  the 
preceding  day  for  two  hours  with  Charles  Grant  upon  re- 
ligion, and  had  found  him  very  liberal  and  tolerant.     It  was, 

351 


352  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION" 

I  suppose,  the  cholera  which  sent  her  ladyship  to  the  only 
saint  in  the  Ministry  for  ghostly  counsel.  Poor  Macdon- 
ald's  case  was  most  undoubtedly  cholera.  It  is  said  that 
Lord  Amesbury  also  died  of  cholera,  though  no  very  strange 
explanation  seems  necessary  to  account  for  the  death  of  a 
man  of  eighty-four.  Yesterday  it  was  rumored  that  the 
three  Miss  Molyneuxes,*  of  whom,  by  the  way,  there  are 
only  two,  were  all  dead  in  the  same  way;  that  the  Bishop 
of  Worcester  and  Lord  B.irham  were  no  more;  and  many 
other  foolish  stories.  I  do  not  believe  there  is  the  slight- 
est ground  for  uneasiness,  though  Lady  Holland  appar- 
ently considers  the  case  so  serious  tliat  she  has  taken  her 
conscience  out  of  Allen's  keeping  and  put  it  into  the  hands 
of  Charles  Grant. 

Here  I  end  my  letter;  a  great  deal  too  long  already  for 
so  busy  a  man  to  write,  and  for  such  careless  correspondents 
to  receive.  T.  B.  M. 

Macaulay  did  not  put  down  his  street  and  number  and 
he  signed  only  his  initials,  because  he  was  in  a  hurry  and 
his  sisters  knew  his  address.  Generally,  liowever,  a  let- 
ter should  contain  the  writer's  name  and  address  in  full, 
so  that  in  case  it  goes  astray  in  the  mail  or  is  lost  from 
the  envelope,  it  may  be  returned  to  the  sender  through 
the  dead  letter  office.  The  heading  is  in  the  following 
form: 

153  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York   City, 

Jan.  2,  1906. 

1000  Front  St., 
Seattle,  Wash., 

Jan.  3,  1906. 

W^HiTE  Plains, 
Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y., 

Jan.  4,  1906. 

♦The  preferred  usage  to-day  is  "the  three  Misses  Molyneux." 


LETTER    FORMS  353 

People  who  prefer  a  little  more  formality  write  out, 
instead   of   abbreviating,    all   such   words   as   "avenue," 
"street,"   "county,"   "Washington,"   "New  York,"   and, 
"January."     Often  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  sent  is  placed  at  the  bottom,  thus: 

Mr.  William  Lord  (or  William  Lord,  Esq.), 
Carmel,  Putnam  Co., 
N.  Y. 

The  form  of  the  salutation  depends  upon  the  relation 
between  the  writer  and  the  recipient.  Each  of  the  fol- 
lowing is  proper  in  its  place : 

My  dear  Uncle,  Dear  Cousin  Katharine, 

Dear  William,  Dear   Miss   Smith, 

Dear  Jack,  My  dear  Mrs.  Smith, 

Dear  Ethel,  Dear  Mr.  Smith. 

The  salutation  is  usually  followed  by  a  comma;  a 
comma  and  dash,  a  colon,  or  a  colon  and  dash  is  some- 
what more  formal.  The  body  of  the  letter  always  be- 
gins on  the  line  below  the  salutation. 

The  letter  may  end  in  any  one  of  several  ways,  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  of  the  writer.     For  example: 

Yours  truly.  Faithfully  yours. 

Yours  very  truly,  Cordially  yours. 

Truly  yours.  Affectionately  yours, 

Very  truly  yours.  Yours  with  love, 

Sincerely  yours,  Your  loving  daughter. 

Respectfully  yours,  etc. 

"Respectfully  yours"  is  proper  in  letters  to  superiors 
and  persons  in  high  office. 


354  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

In  the  direction,  on  the  envelope,  a  comma  may  be 
put  at  the  end  of  each  line  but  the  last,  which  is  closed 
with  a  period;  or  there  may  be  no  punctuation  except 
the  periods  for  abbreviations. 

Mrs.   John   Smith, 
100  William  Street, 
Catskill, 
New  York. 

Mr.  John  Smith  (or  John  Smith,  Esq.) 
100  William  St. 
Catskill 
N.  Y. 

61.  Business  Letters. — A  business  letter,  whether  writ- 
ten to  an  acquaintance  or  not,  is  more  formal  than  a 
familiar  letter.  The  heading  should  always  be  com- 
plete; generally  it  is  printed  at  the  top  of  the  sheet. 
The  name  and  address  of  the  recipient  should  precede 
the  salutation: 

206  Broadway, 
New  York  City, 

Jan.  4,  1906. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
153-157  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York  City. 
Gentlemen: 

I  thank  you  for  j'our  kind  memorandum  of  Jan.  3 
in  regard  to  page  proofs,  etc. 

The  salutation  "Gentlemen,"  "Sirs,"  or  "Dear  Sirs," 
in  addressing  a  firm,  and  "Sir"  and  "Dear  Sir,"  in  ad- 
dressing an  individual,  are  all  in  good  use.  In  a  letter 
to  a  woman  the  form  is  "Madam"  or  "Dear  Madam," 


LETTER    FORMS  355 

whether  the  woman  be  married  or  single ;  to  a  firm  com- 
posed of  women,  "Ladies"  or  sometimes  "Mesdames." 
In  a  business  letter  to  an  acquaintance  the  salutation 
may  take  the  same  form  as  in  a  familiar  letter,  "IMy 
dear  Mr.  Smith"  or  "Dear  Mr.  Smith."  In  this  case  the 
"my"  does  not  express  affection,  and  the  longer  saluta- 
tion is  somewhat  more  formal. 

The  following  is  a  typical  business  letter: 

Dried  Fruit  Company, 

998  Hudson  St., 
New  York   City, 

Jan.  4,   1906. 

Mr.  John  Wilkes, 
2000  Walnut  St., 
Philadelphia. 
Dear  Sir  : 

In  answer  to  your  letter  of  Jan.  3,  inquiring  the 
price  of  California  raisins,  I  refer  you  to  the  enclosed  list 
of  all  the  grades  in  our  stock.  From  the  list  there  is  10^ 
discount  for  cash.  For  carload  lots,  shipped  direct  from 
Fresno  to  Philadelphia,  we  can  make  better  terms.  If  you 
are  buying  in  such  quantities,  I  shall  be  glad  to  quote  you 
our  best  rates. 

Our  Mr.  Hunt,  who  handles  our  raisins  and  prunes,  will 
be  in  Philadelphia  next  Monday  and  will  take  the  liberty  of 
calling  on  you. 

With  thanks  for  your  favor. 

Truly  yours. 

Dried  Fruit  Company, 
per  M.  B.  James. 

Every  trade  has  its  special  vocabulary  and  abbrevia- 
tions, which  are  entirely  proper  in  business  communica- 
tions. Most  large  firms  also  have  sets  of  typical  letter 
forms,  which  serve  as  models  for  much  of  the  corre- 
spondence. 


356  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

When  a  woman  signs  a  business  letter  to  a  stranger, 
she  should  indicate  the  title  by  which  she  is  to  be  ad- 
dressed, thus : 

Truly  yours, 

(Miss)  Ellen  R.  Smith. 

Truly  yours, 

Ellen  R.  Smith. 

(Mrs.  John  Smith.) 

62.  Invitations  and  Replies — Informal  invitations  and 
replies  are  written  like  familiar  letters.     For  example: 

20  Church   Street, 
Plaixfield,   New  Jersey, 

January  5,  1906. 
Dear  Mr.  Allen,- — 

May  we  have  the  pleasure  of  your  company  to 
dinner  at  half  past  seven  ne.xt  Wednesday  evening?  Per- 
haps you  will  be  kind  enough  to  bring  one  or  two  of  your 
songs,  for  we  hojie  to  hear  a  little  music. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Dorothy   Newell  Alden. 

15   Main   Street, 
Plainfield,  New  Jersey, 

January  6,    1906. 
Dear  Mrs.  Alden, — 

I  am  glad  to  accept  your  kind  invitation  to  dinner 
Wednesday.  My  songs  are  stale,  but  such  as  I  have  I  will 
bring. 

With  many  thanks. 

Faithfully  yours, 

Gordon   L.   Allen. 

In  both  these  notes  the  date,  or  indeed  the  whole  head- 
ing, might  be  placed  below  the  signature,  at  the  left. 
The  name  of  the  city  and  of  the  state,  and  the  figures 


LETTER   FORMS  357 

for  the  year  might  be  omitted,  and  the  day  of  the  month 
written  out,  thus : 

20  Church  Street, 
January  fifth. 

Formal  invitations  and  rephes  are  phrased  in  the  third 
person.  In  an  engraved  invitation  the  lines  are  gener- 
ally arranged  as  follows : 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  William  Rantoul  Alden 

request  the  pleasure  of 

Mr.   Allen's 

company  at  dinner 

on  Wednesday,  January  tenth, 

at  half  past  seven  o'clock. 

20  Church  Street. 

The  written  invitation  has  the  same  wording,  but  the 
arrangement  of  lines  need  not  be  followed  unless  one 
prefers  to  observe  that  formality.  Below  are  models  of 
a  formal  written  invitation  and  two  replies: 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  William  Rantoul  Alden  request  the  pleas- 
ure of  Mr.  Allen's  company  at  dinner  on  Wednesday,  Jan- 
uary tenth,  at  half  past  seven  o'clock. 

20  Church  Street. 

Mr.  Gordon  Lightfoot  Allen  accepts  with  pleasure  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  William  Rantoul  Alden's  kind  invitation  for 
Wednesday  evening,  January  tenth,  at  half  past  seven 
o'clock. 

15   Main   Street. 

Mr.  Gordon  Lightfoot  Allen  regrets  that  a  previous  en- 
gagement prevents  his  accepting  Mr.  and  INIrs.  William 
Rantoul  Alden's  kind  invitation  for  Wednesday  evening, 
January  tenth,  at  half  past  seven  o'clock. 

15   Main   Street. 


358  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

The  declination  may  also  read  "Mr.  Gordon  Light- 
foot  Allen  regi-ets  that  he  is  unahle  to  accept,  etc."  In 
the  answer  to  an  invitation,  formal  or  informal,  the  date 
should  be  repeated  in  order  to  avoid  mistake. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  familiar  letter  to  a  relative,  recounting  the  events  of 
the  last  week. 

2.  Write  a  business  letter,  ordering  a  book  from  your  local  book- 
seller. 

3.  Write  to  a  Chicago  dealer,  asking  the  price  of  some  articles 
you  wish  to  buy. 

4.  Write  formal  and  informal  invitations  and  replies. 


INDEX 


Accept,  319. 

Acceptance,  319. 

Acceptation,  319. 

Access,  319. 

Accession,  319. 

Acme,  317. 

Ad  (for  "advertisement"),  318. 

Addison,  Joseph,  260,  261 

Adjectives,  329-331 

Ad  libitum,  317. 

Admire,  316,  321. 

Adverbs,  329-331 

Affect,  322. 

Aggravate,  322. 

Alice  in  Wonderland,  18. 

Allow,  316. 

AUude  to,  322. 

Almost,  329. 

Alone,  329. 

Alternative,  319. 

Amateur,  317. 

Ambiguous  evidence,  192-203. 

American  usage,  316. 

Among,  331. 

Analogies  in  argumentation,  188,  189. 

Analysis  in  argumentation,   163-206. 

"And"  with  a  finite  verb  instead  of 
"to"  with  the  infinitive,  335. 

Anglo-Saxon  derivatives,  332-335. 

Angry,  329. 

Antithesis,  299. 

Apostrophe,  284. 

Appeals  to  emotion  in  argumentation, 
224-226. 

Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopcedia,  24, 
163. 

Application  of  generalizations  to  par- 
ticular instances  in  argumentation, 
200-203. 

Apt,  329. 

Arabian  Nights,  2,  3,  18. 

Arbor,  317. 

Argumentation,  1,  6,  7,  9-12,  149-239. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  130,  257. 

As,  331. 


As  it  were,  336. 

Assert,  322 

Assertion  in  argumentation,  183-185. 

Atkinson,  George  Francis,  125,  126. 

Atone  for,  323. 

Austen,  Jane,  187. 

Authority  in  argumentation,  180-185. 

Avocation,  320 

Awful,  318. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  135,  248,  249. 

Baggage-car,  316. 

Balance,  320. 

Balanced  sentences,  299. 

Banquet,  332. 

Barbarisms,  317,  318. 

Beastly,  319. 

Beautiful,  319. 

Beck  and  call,  336. 

Between,  331. 

Biff,  318. 

Bike,  318. 

Billiardist,  318. 

Booking-clerk,  316. 

Borrow,  George,  245. 

Boughten,  318. 

Bound,  329. 

Brackets,  283. 

Brief  proper  in  argumentation,  218- 

221. 
Briefs  in  argumentation,  210-221. 
Bring,  323. 
British  usage,  316. 
Bronte,  Charlotte,  84. 
Brougham,  Henry,  123. 
Bryce,  James,  11,  12,  129,  130. 
Burglarize,  318. 
Burke,   Edmund,   152,   153,  195,  196, 

201,  202,   207,  222,  243,  244,  249, 

250,  259,  260,  337. 
Business  letters,  354,  355. 

Calculate,  316. 
Campbell,  L.  J.,  347. 
Can,  324. 


359 


360 


INDEX 


Capitalization,  337-340. 

Capital  punishment,  156-160. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  1.30. 

Carriage,  320. 

Carry,  316,  323. 

Cause  and  effect  in  argimientation, 
189-191. 

Century  Dirlionnry,  7,  8. 

Chamfer,  317. 

Chandelier,  317. 

Cheek  bj'  jowl,  336. 

Chemist,  316. 

Chic,  317. 

Choice,  319. 

Chump,  318. 

Chunk,  315. 

Circumstantial  evidence,  173, 174, 185- 
206. 

Circus,  317. 

Claim,  322. 

Clearness,  12;  in  narration,  47-51;  in 
description,  99,  100;  in  exposition, 
132-134;  in  argumentation,  222;  in 
the  paragraph,  256-260;  in  the  sen- 
tence, 289,  290,  297-305. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhorne,  189. 

Clever,  316. 

Co-ed,  318. 

Coincidences  in  argumentation,  204, 
205. 

Collation,  332. 

Colon,  281. 

Comma,  274-279. 

Comparisons,  100,  345,  340. 

Compensate,  323. 

Competence  of  the  witness,  176-185. 

Complement,  320. 

Completeness,  320. 

Completion,  320. 

Complex  .sentences,  268,  277,  280. 

Compliment,  320. 

Compound  complex  sentences,  268. 

Compound  sentences,  208,  276,  280, 
281. 

Concurring  evidence,  204,  205. 

Condone,  323. 

Conductor,  310. 

Conflagration,  .3.34. 

Conflicting  evidence.  191.  192. 

Confused  definitions  in  argumentation, 
186,  187. 

Conjunctions,  331. 

Connectives,  51;  in  argumentative 
briefs,  218,  219;  between  para- 
graphs, 253.  254. 

Conrad,  Joseph,  95. 


Contend,  322. 

Continual,  329. 

Continuous,  329. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  93. 

Coordinate  clauses,  300,  301 

Corn,  316. 

Correct  inferences  in  argumentation, 

203-205. 
Could,  324. 
Council,  320. 
Counsel,  320. 
Countersink,  317. 
Crackerjack,  318. 
Cross-examination,  182. 
Curious,  3.30. 
Curry  favor,  330. 
Custom,  320. 

Dance  .\ttknd.\nce,  336. 

Dangling  participles.  304.  305. 

Darwin,  Charles,  113,  114. 

Dash,  282. 

Davis,  Richard  Harding,  48-50. 

Deadly,  319. 

Debate,  226-229. 

Decided,  330. 

Decisive,  330. 

Declarative  sentences,  268. 

Declare,  322. 

Definite,  330. 

Definition  of  terms  in  argumentation, 
166  109;  in  debate,  227;  of  the  par- 
agraph, 240;  of  the  sentence,  208. 

Definitive,  330. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  2,  26,  27,  224. 

Depot,  320. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  257. 

Description,  1-4,  7-10,  67-106. 

Determined,  329. 

Dialect,  271,  272. 

Dialogue,  paragraphs  in,  241,  242. 

Dickens,  Charles,  67,  68.  176.  259 

Dint  of,  336. 

Direction  of  letters,  354. 

Discovery,  320. 

Disremember,  316. 

Distinct,  330. 

Distinctive.  330. 

Doubtful  inferences  in  argumentation, 
191   203. 

Dowel,  317. 

Doyle,  Sir  Arthur  Conan,  191,  192. 

Druggist,  316. 

Dudgeon.  336. 

Duds.  318. 

Du  Maurier,  George,  78,  79. 


INDEX 


361 


Easement,  317. 

Easy  mark,  318. 

Eclat,  317. 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  57,  58,  236. 

Edifice,  334. 

Effect,  .322. 

Either,  331,  336. 

Elegant,  319. 

Elevator,  316. 

Eliot,  Charles,  70,  71. 

Eliot,  Charles  William,  188,  189. 

Eliot,  George,  197,  198,  253,  254. 

Else's,  336. 

Emigration,  321. 

Emf)hasis  in  the  sentence,  291-294. 

Endings  of  letters,  353. 

Enlarging  the  vocabulary,  346,  347. 

Enormity,  321. 

Enormousness,  321. 

Enthuse,  318. 

Entre  nous,  317. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  174. 

Etiquette,  317. 

Ever  and  anon,  336. 

Every  other  day,  336. 

Evidence,  173-206. 

Exam,  318. 

Examples  in  argumentation,  195,  196. 

E.xcept,  319. 

Exceptionable,  330. 

Exceptional,  330. 

Exclamation  point,  282. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  268. 

Expect,  316,  323. 

Expert  testimony,  177-185. 

Exposition,  1,  4-12,  107-148;  of  the 

question     in     argumentation,    163- 

172. 

Faddist,  318. 

Fail,  316. 

Fall  asleep,  336. 

Fallacies  in  argumentation,  185-191. 

Familiar  letters,  351-354. 

Fascinating,  319. 

Faux  pas,  317. 

Favor   316. 

Fetch,  323. 

Fielding,  Henry,  169. 

Figurative  words,  344-346. 

Find,  323. 

Fine,  319. 

Fireman,  316. 

First,  318. 

Firstly,  318. 

Fiske,  John,  251. 


Fletcher's  Iiulex  to  General  Literature, 

163. 
Flunk,  316. 
Foote,  Samuel,  180. 
Forehanded,  316. 
Foreign  words,  317,  318. 
Forget  oneself,  336. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  53,  54,  65,  263, 

264. 
Freight-train,  316. 
Frying-pan,  316. 
Function,  332. 
Funny, 330. 

Galoot,  318. 

Generalization  in  argumentation,  196- 

200. 
General  words,  340-344. 
Gentleman,  332. 
Gents,  318. 

George,  Henry,  225,  226. 
Get  rid  of,  336. 
Ghastly,  319. 
Gibbon,  Edward,  180. 
Given,  336. 
Godwin,  William,  193. 
Go  hard  with  one,  336. 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  47,  332. 
Good-natured,  316. 
Good   use    in   sentences,    269-284;    in 

words,  314-340. 
Goods-train,  316. 
Gorgeous,  319. 
Graft,  315. 
Grain,  316. 
Grand,  318. 

Greek  derivatives,  332-335. 
Green,  John  Richard,  2,  3,  254. 
Guard,  316. 
Guess,  316. 
Gym,  318. 

Habit,  320. 
Had  better,  336. 
Had  rather,  336. 
Hall,  Robert,  225. 
Hamerton,  Philip  Gilbert,  90. 
Hanged,  323. 
Happen,  323. 
Hard  put  to  it,  336. 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  272. 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  255. 
Hazlitt,  William    137. 
Headings  of  letters,  352-354. 
Healthful,  330. 
Healthy,  330, 


362 


INDEX 


Hearing,  in  description,  77,  78. 

High  dudgeon,  336. 

Hire,  323. 

Honesty  of  the  witness,  174-176. 

Honor  system,  160-162. 

Hook  or  crook,  336. 

Horrid,  319. 

Hot  stuff,  318. 

How  do  you  do?  336. 

Hue  and  cry,  336. 

Humans,  318. 

Hume,  David,  198,  199. 

Hung,  323. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  110,  HI,  154, 

203,  204,  246,  247,  271. 
Hyphen,  284. 

Idioms,  289,  33.5  337. 

Immigration,  321. 

Imperative  sentences,  268. 

Improprieties,  317-337. 

In,  331. 

Incorrect  inferences  in  argumentation, 

185-191. 
In  our  midst,  336. 
Interest,   12;   in   narration,  52  .54;    in 

description,  100,  101;  in  exposition, 

134-137;  in  argumentation,  222;  in 

the  paragraph,  260. 
Interrogation  point,  281. 
Interrogative  sentences,  268. 
In  this  connection,  336. 
Into,  331. 
Introduction    of     the    argumentative 

brief,  215-218. 
Invented  example   in  argumentation, 

187,  188. 
Invention,  320. 
Invitations,  356-358. 
Irritate,  322. 
Irving,  Washington,  68,  69,  1.36,  137, 

246. 
Issue  in  argumentation,  109  172. 

James,  Henry,  71-73. 
Jeffrey,  Francis,  24  26. 
Johnson,  Samuel,  178,  179. 
Jolly,  319. 

Kames,  LonD,  248. 

Key-sentence,  120. 

Kinds  of  words.  340-346. 

Kinglake,     .\lexander     William,     89, 

90. 
Kingsley,  Charles,   94,   95,   128,   129, 

247,  248.  297. 


Kipling,  Rudyard,  48,  80,  81,  342 
Kith  and  kin,  336. 

Lady,  332. 

Lamb,  Charles,  298. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  9.3 

Lang,  .\ndrew   27,  28. 

Last   330. 

Latest,  330. 

Latin  derivatives,  332-335. 

Lay,  324. 

Learn,  324 

Lease,  323. 

Lemonade,  316. 

Lemon-squash,  316 

Lend.  324. 

Let,  323. 

Letter  forms,  351-358. 

Lever,  Charles,  27,  28,  79. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  250. 

Liable,  329. 

Lie,  324. 

Lift,  316. 

Like.  316,  321. 

Likely,  329. 

Limits  of  an  argument,  206-208. 

Literal  words,  344-346. 

Literary  Digest,  163. 

Little  Women,  18. 

Loan,  324. 

Local  u.«age,  271,  272,  315,  316. 

Locate,  323. 

Long  words,  332. 

Loose  sentences,  294,  295. 

Love.  321. 

Lovely,  318. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  2.55,  271,  272. 

333-335. 
Luggage-van,  31 6. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  181. 
Lytton,  Edward  Buhver,  115,  122. 

Macaroni,  317. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babingtnn,  14,  29, 

30,  2.52,  351,  352. 
Mad,  329. 

Magazine  testimony,  183. 
Maintain,  322. 
Maize,  316. 
Majority,  321. 
Make  off,  336. 
.\[nl  de  mer,  317. 
Mansion,  3.32. 

Martin,  George  Madden,  20-23. 
May,  324. 
Meerschaum,  317. 


IKDEX 


363 


Mention,  322. 

Midst,  336. 

Might,  324. 

MUl,  John  Stuart,  201. 

Misrelated  participles,  303,  304. 

Mob,  315. 

Morley,  John,  2-59,  260. 

Morris,  William,  250,  251. 

Most,  329. 

Multum  in  parvo,  317. 

Napier,  Sir  William  Francis  Pat- 
rick, 92. 

Narration,  1-7,  14-66;  combined  with 
description,  101. 

Nasty,  319. 

Nation.  103. 

National  preju<iire  in  argumentation, 
180. 

National  use,  270  272,  315-317. 

Natural  laws  in  argumentation,  203, 
204. 

Ne'er,  314. 

Neither,  331. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  92,  133,  171, 
172,  2.56,  257,  280. 

Newspaper  testimony,  183. 

"News  stories,"  40-44,  62,  63. 

Nice,  319. 

Nor,  331. 

Not  a  whit,  336. 

Nouns,  319-321, 

Nouveau  riche,  317. 

Observance,  321. 

Observation,  321. 

Obsolete  constructions,   269-271. 

Obsolete  words,  269-271,  314. 

Odd,  330. 

Of  mine,  336. 

Once,  336. 

Only,  .329. 

Or,  331. 

Orate,  318. 

Order,  12;  in  narration,  38-45;  in  de- 
scription, 91-98;  in  exposition,  123- 
132;  in  argumentation,  208-221; 
in  the  paragraph,  244-256;  in  the 
sentence.  272,  273,  288-295. 

Origin  of  the  question  in  argumenta- 
tion, 166. 

Out  of  one's  head,  336. 

Over,  336. 

Pack,  316. 
Pants,  318. 


Paragraphs,  240-267. 

Parallel  constructions  in  the  para- 
graph, 256-258 ;  in  the  sentence, 
297-299. 

Parentheses,  282,  283. 

Parkman,  Francis,  92. 

Part,  321. 

Participles  misrelated,  .303,  304;  dan- 
gling, 304,  305. 

Party,  321. 

Patent  medicine  testimonials,  182, 190. 

Perchance,  314. 

Period,  281. 

Periodic  sentences,  294,  295. 

Perk  up,  316. 

Person,  321. 

Persuasiveness  in  argumentation,  222- 
226. 

Pesky,  316. 

Phone,  318. 

Photo,  318. 

Piano,  317. 

Pie,  316. 

Plans,  in  narration,  44,  45;  in  descrip- 
tion, 98;  in  exposition,  131,  132;  in 
argumentation,  208-221. 

Plentiful,  330. 

Plenty,  330. 

Plurality,  321. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  81 ,  82. 

Point  of  view,  in  narration,  50;  in  de- 
scription, 99. 

Political  prejudice  in  argumentation, 
178,  179. 

Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature, 
24,  163. 

Pope,  Alexander,  315. 

Portion,  321. 

Practicable,  331. 

Practical,  331. 

Prejudiced  testimony,  177-180. 

Prelim,  318. 

Prepositions,  331. 

Present  use,  270.  271,  314,  315. 

Pretentious  words,  332. 

Preventative,  318. 

Preventive,  318. 

Price,  Richard,  178,  179. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  133,  1.34. 

Proctor,  Richard  A.,  130,  131. 

Pronouns  and  antecedents,  301-303. 

Prophylaxis,  317. 

Proportion,  12;  in  narration,  45-47; 
in  description,  98;  in  exposition,  132; 
in  argumentation,  221;  in  the  para- 
graph, 256;  in  the  sentence,  295-297. 


364 


INDEX 


Propose,  324. 
Proved,  318. 
Proven,  318. 
Provoke,  322. 
Public  Opinion,  163. 
Punctuation,  273-284. 
Purpose,  324. 
Put  to  death,  336. 

Quite,  330. 

Qui  vire,  317. 

Quotation  marks,  283,  284. 

Ralson   n'ftxRK,  317. 

Ranch,  317. 

Rather,  3,30. 

Reade,  Charles,  97,  198,  204,  205,  261 

202. 
Real,  331. 
Really,  .331. 

Rebuttal  in  debate,  229. 
Rechercht',  317. 
Reckon,  310. 
Refer  to,  322. 
Refutations    in    argumentation,    208, 

209.  220.221. 
Remainder,  320. 

Replies  to  invitations.  3.50- .3.58. 
Reputable  use,  270,  272,  317-337. 
Resemble,  31C. 
Residence,  332. 
Rest,  320. 

Restrictive  relatives,  278. 
Review  of  Reriews,  163. 
Right,  316. 

Roman  domus,  114   120. 
Royce,  ,Josiah,  332,  333. 
Ru.skin,  John,  9,  77,  78,  136,  180,  181, 
298. 

Salijtations  of  Letters,  353-355. 

Say,  322. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter.  24-26,  84,  85,  95, 

96,  253. 
Scrape  acciuaintance,  336. 
Scrimmage,  315. 
Semicolon,  280,  281. 
Sentences,  268  313. 
Sequeh-p,  317. 
Set,  324. 
Sewage,  321. 
Sewerage,  321. 
Shall,  324  328. 
Short  words,  332. 
Should   324  329. 
Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  269. 


Sight,  in  description,  76,  77. 
Significance,  321. 
Signification,  321. 
Similes,  100,  345,  346. 
Simple  sentences,  268. 

Simple  words,  332. 

Since,  .336. 

Singular,  330. 

Sit,  324. 

Skedaddle,  318. 

Slang,  272,  318. 

Smart,  316. 

Smell,  in  description,  78,  79. 

Smith,  .\dam,  11M13. 

Smith,  Alexander,  83. 

Snide,  318. 

So,  .3.31. 

Some,  .331. 

Somewhat,  331. 

Sooth.  314. 

Southey,  Robert,  256. 

Specific  words,  340-344. 

Spick  and  span,  336. 

Spider,  316. 

Splendid,  319. 

State,  322. 

Statement  of  the  issue  in  argumenta- 
tion, 169-172. 

Station,  320. 

Statue,  321. 

Statute,  321. 

Stay,  324. 

Staishen,  Leslie,  255,  256. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  xix,  6,  63, 
64,  73  76,  96,  97,  108,  109,  241,  242, 
283. 

Stoker,  316. 

Stop,  324. 

Strange,  3.30. 

Street-car,  316. 

Stunning.  319. 

Subordinate  clauses,  300,  301. 

Suppose,  316.  323. 

Su.spect,  323. 

Suspicioned,  318. 

Sweet,  319, 

Swell,  319. 

Swift,  .Jonathan,  150-152.  315. 

Synonyms,  347. 

Take,  323. 

Take  it,  3.37. 

Tantalize,  322. 

Tart,  316. 

Taste,  sense  of,  in  description,  79. 

Tasteful,  318. 


INDEX 


365 


Tasty,  318. 

Teach,  324. 

Team,  320. 

Technical  knowle<lge  in  argumenta- 
tion, 180-185. 

Terrible,  318. 

Testimonial  evidence,  173-18.5. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  14, 
67,  89,  224,  225,  258,  259,  341. 

That,  331. 

Then,  337. 

Thick  of  it,  336. 

Think,  316. 

Ticket  agent,  316. 

Tired,  316. 

Tit  for  tat,  337. 

To  and  fro.  337. 

Tobacco,  317. 

Tom  Brown  s  Scliool  Days,  18. 

Topic-sentence,  120. 

Top  of  his  bent,  337. 

Tort,  317. 

Tote,  316. 

Touch,  in  description,  79,  80. 

Tram,  316. 

Transpire,  323. 

TroUope,  Anthony,  87,  88. 

Tuckered,  316. 

Turn  the  tables,  337. 

Twain,  Mark,  189. 

Unbeknown,  318. 

Under  the  circumstances,  337. 


Unless,  331. 

Unity,  12;  in  narration,  30-38;  in  de- 
scription, 83-91;  in  exposition,  120- 
123;  in  argumentation,  162-208;  of 
the  paragraph,  240-244;  of  the  sen- 
tence, 284-288. 

Varsity,  318. 
Verbs,  321-329. 
Very,  316,  330. 
Vocabulary,  346,  347. 
Vocation,  320. 
Vulgar  usage,  272,  318. 

Walkist,  318. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  153-156. 

Webster,  Daniel,  175.  176. 

Weird,  319. 

Well-to-do,  316. 

Wendell,  Barrett,  126,  127,  132,  244. 

Whether  or  no,  337. 

Whit,  336. 

Wholesome,  330. 

Wigwam,  317. 

Will,  324-328. 

Witherspoon,  John,  315. 

Without,  331. 

Witness,  174-185. 

Words,  314-350. 

World's  Work,  163. 

Woul<l,  324-329. 

Write  you,  337. 


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